Diversity in U.S. Mass Media

List of Figures xi List of Tables xv List of Boxes xvii Preface xix About the Companion Website xxi 1 Introduction 1 Social Identity 2 Racial/Ethnic Identity 3 Gender Identity 5 Sexual Identity 6 Age Identity 7 Disability Identity 7 Class Identity 8 Organization of the Book 8 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 10 References 10 2 Theoretical Foundations of Research in Mass Media Representations 13 Mass Media Representations: Social Psychological Perspectives 13 Framing 14 Social Comparison Theory 17 Socialization 19 Cultivation Theory 20 Media Representations: Critical Perspectives 22 Hegemony 23 The Concept of Representation 24 Feminist Theory 26 Three Waves of Feminism 27 Queer Theory 28 Concluding Remarks 29 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 29 References 30 Part I 35 3 Representations of American Indians 37 Historical Background to American Indian Representations 38 American Indians in Film 39 American Indians in Entertainment Television 46 Representations of American Indians in the News 52 American Indians and New Media 56 Concluding Remarks 57 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 58 References 59 4 Representations of African Americans 63 Historical Background to African American Representations 64 African Americans in Film 65 Who is Telling the Story? 70 Historical Contextualization of Films 72 African Americans in Entertainment Television 73 African American Music 78 Representations of African Americans in the News 79 African Americans in Newsrooms 83 African Americans and Advertisements 84 African Americans in the Media Business 85 Concluding Remarks 87 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 87 References 87 5 Representations of Latino/Hispanic Americans 93 Historical Background to Latino/Hispanic Representations 94 Latinos/Hispanics in Film 95 Latinos/Hispanics in Entertainment Television 99 Latinos/Hispanics and the Music Industry 106 Representations of Latinos/Hispanics in the News 108 Spanish-Language Newspapers in the United States 108 Spanish-Language Magazines in the United States 109 Latinos/Hispanics and Advertisements 110 Patterns of Assimilation and Colorism 110 Concluding Remarks 112 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 113 References 113 6 Representations of Arabs/Arab Americans 117 Historical Background to Arab/Arab American Representations 117 Arabs/Arab Americans in Film 119 Arabs/Arab Americans in Entertainment Television 125 Representations of Arabs/Arab Americans in the News 129 Concluding Remarks 134 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 135 References 135 7 Representations of Asians/Asian Americans 139 Historical Background to Asian/Asian American Representations 140 Asians/Asian Americans in Film 141 Asians/Asian Americans in Entertainment Television 150 Representations of Asians/Asian Americans in the News 157 Asian/Asian American Activism and New Media 161 Concluding Remarks 164 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 164 References 165 8 Representations of Mixed- Race Individuals and Relationships 169 Historical Background to Representations of Race Mixing 170 Race Mixing in Film 172 Race Mixing in Entertainment Television 179 Representations of Mixed- Race Individuals and Relationships in the News 188 Mixed-Race Individuals/Couples, Social Media, and Advertising 190 Concluding Remarks 192 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 193 References 194 9 Representations of Gender in Television, Film, and Music Videos 197 Historical Background to Gender Representations in Film and Television 198 Gender in Film 200 Gender in Entertainment Television 209 Gender in the Music Industry 220 Concluding Remarks 226 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 228 References 228 10 Representations of Gender in Magazines, Newspapers, and Advertising 233 Historical Background to Women in Magazines 235 Gender in Magazines 236 Gender in Newspapers 240 Gender in Advertising 246 Gender Trends and the “Male Gaze” 249 Gender in New Media 252 Concluding Remarks 253 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 254 References 254 11 Representations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People in the Media 259 Historical Background to LGBT Representations 260 LGBT in Film 262 LGBT in Entertainment Television 268 LGBT Representations in the Music Industry 274 Representations of LGBT in the News 276 LGBT and Magazines 277 LGBT Representations in Paid and Shared Media 280 Concluding Remarks 281 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 282 References 283 12 Representations of Age 287 Historical Background to Ageist Stereotypes and the Myths of Aging 288 Senior Citizens and Teenagers in the United States 289 Age in Film 290 Representations of Older and Elderly People 290 Representations of Teenagers 294 Age in Entertainment Television 299 Representations of Older and Elderly People 299 Representations of Teenagers 302 Age in the News 305 Representations of Older and Elderly People 305 Representations of Teenagers 306 Age and New Media 308 Concluding Remarks 309 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 310 References 310 13 Representations of People with Disabilities 315 Historical Background to Representations of People with Disabilities 315 People with Disabilities in Film 318 People with Disabilities in Entertainment Television 322 People with Disabilities in the News 327 People with Disabilities in Advertising 331 Concluding Remarks 333 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 334 References 334 14 Representations of Class 339 Historical Background to Class Representations 339 Class in Film 342 Class in Entertainment Television 348 Representations of Class in the News 354 Concluding Remarks 357 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 358 References 358 Part II 361 15 Representations of Religion and Faith in the Media 363 Historical Background to Faith and Religion Representations 364 Religion and Faith in Film 366 Martyrdom in Film 367 Films about Those Struggling with Faith 369 Films as Windows into Faith Traditions 370 Representations of Religion and Faith on Television 370 Televangelism 375 Representations of Faith and Religion in News 377 Denominational Magazines 379 Concluding Remarks 379 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 380 References 380 16 Media Industries Addressing Diversity 385 Industry Diversity Statements 385 Interviews with Media Professionals 389 Gavriel Shankerman 389 Rebecca Traister 391 Kent Takano 392 Laura Watson 394 Richard Prince 394 Peter Walpole 396 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 396 References 397 17 AI, Algorithms, and Social Media: Impact on Social Group Representations 399 Historical Background to Web Development and Digital Media Content 399 Diverse Voices and Representations via the Web 401 Algorithms and Hindrances to Diversity 401 Social Media and Representation 404 Concluding Remarks 407 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 407 References 407 18 Media and Social Movements 411 Historic Representations of Social Movements in the Media 413 #MeToo 415 #MeToo – Too Far? 421 Black Lives Matter 424 Shut Up and Dribble? 429 Black Women’s Lives Matter 430 Rampage or Revolution 432 Concluding Remarks 432 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 433 References 433 19 Conclusion 439 Common Threads in Mass Media Representations 439 Psychological Impact of Mass Media Representations 441 Diverse Media Outlets as Counteracting Agents 441 Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 446 References 446 Digging Deeper 449 One Representation Replaces Another 449 Suggestions for Further Exploration 449 Sexuality and Power 450 Suggestions for Further Exploration 450 Rules and Regulations Influence Representations 450 Suggestions for Further Exploration 451 The Symbolic Annihilation of a Social Group 451 Suggestions for Further Exploration 451 Minorities as the “Other” 452 Suggestions for Further Exploration 452 The News Media Relies on White Males to Tell the Story 452 Suggestions for Further Exploration 452 Technology Offers New Opportunities 453 Suggestions for Further Exploration 453 Understanding Your Role in an Ever-moving Continuum 453 Social Identity Map 454 Final Remarks 455 Suggestions for Further Exploration 455 References 455 Glossary of Key Terms/Concepts 457 Index 465