Brain and Music

Preface ix Part I Introductory Chapters 1 1 Ear and Hearing 3 1.1 The ear 3 1.2 Auditory brainstem and thalamus 6 1.3 Place and time information 8 1.4 Beats, roughness, consonance and dissonance 9 1.5 Acoustical equivalency of timbre and phoneme 11 1.6 Auditory cortex 12 2 Music-theoretical Background 17 2.1 How major keys are related 17 2.2 The basic in-key functions in major 20 2.3 Chord inversions and Neapolitan sixth chords 21 2.4 Secondary dominants and double dominants 21 3 Perception of Pitch and Harmony 23 3.1 Context-dependent representation of pitch 23 3.2 The representation of key-relatedness 26 3.3 The developing and changing sense of key 29 3.4 The representation of chord-functions 30 3.5 Hierarchy of harmonic stability 31 3.6 Musical expectancies 35 3.7 Chord sequence paradigms 36 4 From Electric Brain Activity to ERPs and ERFs 40 4.1 Electro-encephalography (EEG) 43 4.1.1 The 10–20 system 43 4.1.2 Referencing 45 4.2 Obtaining event-related brain potentials (ERPs) 45 4.3 Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 48 4.3.1 Forward solution and inverse problem 49 4.3.2 Comparison between MEG and EEG 49 5 ERP Components 51 5.1 Auditory P1, N1, P2 51 5.2 Frequency-following response (FFR) 53 5.3 Mismatch negativity 54 5.3.1 MMN in neonates 57 5.3.2 MMN and music 57 5.4 N2b and P300 59 5.5 ERP-correlates of language processing 59 5.5.1 Semantic processes: N400 60 5.5.2 Syntactic processes: (E)LAN and P600 63 5.5.3 Prosodic processes: Closure Positive Shift 67 6 A Brief Historical Account of ERP Studies of Music Processing 70 6.1 The beginnings: Studies with melodic stimuli 70 6.2 Studies with chords 74 6.3 MMN studies 75 6.4 Processing of musical meaning 76 6.5 Processing of musical phrase boundaries 77 6.6 Music and action 77 7 Functional Neuroimaging Methods: fMRI and PET 79 7.1 Analysis of fMRI data 81 7.2 Sparse temporal sampling in fMRI 84 7.3 Interleaved silent steady state fMRI 85 7.4 ‘Activation’ vs. ‘activity change’ 85 Part II Towards a New Theory of Music Psychology 87 8 Music Perception: A Generative Framework 89 9 Musical Syntax 98 9.1 What is musical syntax? 98 9.2 Cognitive processes 102 9.3 The early right anterior negativity (ERAN) 109 9.3.1 The problem of confounding acoustics and possible solutions 113 9.3.2 Effects of task-relevance 120 9.3.3 Polyphonic stimuli 121 9.3.4 Latency of the ERAN 127 9.3.5 Melodies 127 9.3.6 Lateralization of the ERAN 129 9.4 Neuroanatomical correlates 131 9.5 Processing of acoustic vs. music-syntactic irregularities 133 9.6 Interactions between music- and language-syntactic processing 138 9.6.1 The Syntactic Equivalence Hypothesis 145 9.7 Attention and automaticity 147 9.8 Effects of musical training 149 9.9 Development 151 10 Musical Semantics 156 10.1 What is musical semantics? 156 10.2 Extra-musical meaning 158 10.2.1 Iconic musical meaning 158 10.2.2 Indexical musical meaning 159 Excursion: Decoding of intentions during musinc listening 161 10.2.3 Symbolic musical meaning 162 10.3 Extra-musical meaning and the N400 163 10.4 Intra-musical meaning 170 Excursion: Posterior temporal cortex and processing of meaning 166 10.4.1 Intra-musical meaning and the N5 171 10.5 Musicogenic meaning 177 10.5.1 Physical 177 10.5.2 Emotional 179 10.5.3 Personal 180 10.6 Musical semantics 181 10.6.1 Neural correlates 181 10.6.2 Propositional semantics 182 10.6.3 Communication vs. expression 182 10.6.4 Meaning emerging from large-scale relations 183 10.6.5 Further theoretical accounts 184 11 Music and Action 186 11.1 Perception–action mediation 186 11.2 ERP correlates of music production 189 12 Emotion 203 12.1 What are ‘musical emotions’? 204 12.2 Emotional responses to music – underlying mechanisms 207 12.3 From social contact to spirituality – The Seven Cs 208 12.4 Emotional responses to music – underlying principles 212 12.5 Musical expectancies and emotional responses 216 12.5.1 The tension-arch 218 12.6 Limbic and paralimbic correlates of music-evoked emotions 219 12.6.1 Major–minor and happy–sad music 225 12.6.2 Music-evoked dopaminergic neural activity 226 12.6.3 Music and the hippocampus 227 12.6.4 Parahippocampal gyrus 231 12.6.5 A network comprising hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, and temporal poles 232 12.6.6 Effects of music on insular and anterior cingulate cortex activity 232 12.7 Electrophysiological effects of music-evoked emotions 233 12.8 Time course of emotion 234 12.9 Salutary effects of music making 235 13 Concluding Remarks and Summary 241 13.1 Music and language 241 13.2 The music-language continuum 244 13.3 Summary of the theory 249 13.4 Summary of open questions 258 References 267 Index 303