Biogas Plants

List of Contributors xvii Series Preface xxi 1 Anaerobic Digestion Process and Biogas Production 1 Liangliang Wei, Weixin Zhao, Likui Feng, Jianju Li, Xinhui Xia, Hang Yu, and Yu Liu 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Basic Knowledges of AD Processes and Operations 2 1.2.1 Fundamental Mechanisms and Typical Processes of AD 2 1.2.2 Factors Affecting the AD Process of Biogas Production 4 1.2.2.1 Temperature 4 1.2.2.2 pH 5 1.2.2.3 Organic Loading Rate (OLR) 5 1.2.2.4 Carbon–Nitrogen Ratio 5 1.2.2.5 Inoculum-to-Substrate Ratio (ISR) 6 1.2.2.6 Solids Concentration 6 1.2.2.7 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) 6 1.3 Current Challenges of AD Process and Biogas Production 7 1.3.1 Ammonia Inhibition 7 1.3.2 Volatile Fatty Acid Inhibition 10 1.3.3 Psychrophilic Temperature Inhibition 12 1.4 Proposed Strategies for Enhanced Biogas Production 14 1.4.1 Promoting Direct Interspecies Electron Transfer via Conductive Materials Additive 14 1.4.2 Co-digestion of Different Substrates 16 1.4.3 Bioaugmentation 19 1.4.4 Bioelectrochemical System-Assisted AD 20 1.5 Techno-Economic and Environmental Assessment of Anaerobic Digestion for Biogas Production 22 1.5.1 Techno-Economic Analysis 22 1.5.2 Environmental Feasibility and Benefit Assessment 24 References 26 2 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Materials to Enhance Biogas Recovery 37 Jonathan T. E. Lee, Nalok Dutta, To-Hung Tsui, Ee Y. Lim, Yanjun Dai, and Yen W. Tong 2.1 Introduction 37 2.1.1 Lignocellulosic Waste Material Production 38 2.1.2 Structural Insight of Lignocellulosic Materials 39 2.1.3 Biogas Production from Lignocellulosic Materials and the Need for Pretreatment 40 2.2 Available Pretreatment Technologies for Lignocellulosic Materials and the Corresponding Biogas Recovery Associated 41 2.2.1 Physical Pretreatment 41 2.2.1.1 Comminution 43 2.2.1.2 Microwave Thermal Pretreatment 43 2.2.1.3 Extrusion 44 2.2.1.4 Ultrasonication 45 2.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment 45 2.2.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis Pretreatment 45 2.2.2.2 Alkali Hydrolysis Pretreatment 47 2.2.2.3 Ionic Liquids Pretreatment 48 2.2.2.4 Deep Eutectic Solvents Pretreatment 48 2.2.2.5 Organosolvents Pretreatment 49 2.2.3 Biological Pretreatment 49 2.2.3.1 Enzymatic Pretreatment 50 2.2.3.2 Whole-cell Microbial Pretreatment 51 2.2.3.3 Fungal Pretreatment 52 2.2.3.4 Ensiling 52 2.2.3.5 Summary of Individual Pretreatment Efficiencies 53 2.2.4 Physiochemical Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass in the Production of Biogas 54 2.2.4.1 Hybrid State of Art Lignocellulosic Pretreatments 54 2.3 Pertinent Perspectives 58 2.3.1 Integrated Biorefinery While Treating Various Wastes 58 2.3.1.1 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 58 2.3.1.2 Forestry Waste 59 2.3.1.3 Crop Straw 59 2.3.2 Biogas Production from Lignocellulosic Waste and Its Economic Viability 59 2.4 Conclusions 60 Acknowledgments 61 References 61 3 Biogas Technology and the Application for Agricultural and Food Waste Treatment 73 Wei Qiao, Simon M. Wandera, Mengmeng Jiang, Yapeng Song, and Renjie Dong 3.1 Development of Biogas Plants 73 3.1.1 Agricultural Waste 74 3.1.1.1 Livestock and Poultry Manure 74 3.1.1.2 Crop Straw 74 3.1.2 Municipal Solid Waste 75 3.1.2.1 Municipal Solid Waste 75 3.1.2.2 Sewage Sludge 75 3.2 Anaerobic Digestion Process 76 3.3 Biogas Production from Livestock and Poultry Manure 77 3.3.1 Successful AD of Cattle and Swine Manure 77 3.3.1.1 Industrial-scale AD of Cattle Manure 77 3.3.1.2 Industrial-scale AD of Swine Manure 77 3.3.2 Successful Anaerobic Digestion of Chicken Manure in a Large Plant 77 3.3.3 Strategies for Mitigating Ammonia Inhibition in Chicken Manure AD 78 3.3.3.1 Supplementation with Trace Elements 78 3.3.3.2 In-situ Ammonia Stripping for Chicken Manure Digesters 79 3.4 Food Waste Anaerobic Digestion 79 3.4.1 Challenges of Food Waste AD and the Solutions 79 3.4.1.1 VFAs Accumulation in Thermophilic AD of Food Waste 79 3.4.1.2 AD Technologies for Food Waste 80 3.4.1.3 Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor Technology for Food Waste 81 References 81 4 Biogas Production from High-solid Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste and Its Co-digestion with Other Organic Wastes 85 Le Zhang, To-Hung Tsui, Kai-Chee Loh, Yanjun Dai, Jingxin Zhang, and Yen Wah Tong 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Reactor Systems for HSAD 86 4.2.1 High-solid Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor 86 4.2.2 Two-stage HSAD Reactor System 87 4.2.3 High-solid Plug-flow Bioreactor 88 4.3 Intensification Strategies for HSAD 89 4.3.1 High-solid Anaerobic Co-digestion (HS-AcD) 89 4.3.2 Supplementation of Additives 90 4.3.3 Bioaugmentation Strategies for HSAD 91 4.3.4 Optimization of Process Parameters 91 4.4 Microbial Communities for HSAD 93 4.5 Digestate Management for HSAD 94 4.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 94 Acknowledgments 95 References 95 5 Biomethane – Production and Management 101 Wojciech Czekała, Aleksandra Łukomska, and Martyna Kulińska 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Purification and Usage of Biogas 103 5.2.1 Biological Desulfurization Within the Digester 104 5.2.2 Desulfurization by Adsorption on Iron Hydroxide 104 5.2.3 Desulfurization by Adsorption on Activated Carbon 104 5.3 Opportunities for Biogas Upgrading 105 5.3.1 CO2 Separation Through Membranes 105 5.3.2 CO2 Separation by Water Scrubbing 106 5.3.3 Chemical Separation of CO2/Chemical Scrubbing 108 5.3.4 Pressure Separation of CO2 (Pressure Swing Adsorption) 109 5.3.5 Cryogenic CO2 Separation 109 5.4 Possibilities of Using Biomethane 110 5.4.1 Production of bioCNG and bioLNG Fuels 111 5.4.2 Production of Biohydrogen 111 5.5 Profitability of Biomethane Production and Recommended Support Systems 112 5.6 Conclusion 113 References 114 6 The Biogas Use 117 Muhammad U. Khan, Abid Sarwar, Nalok Dutta, and Muhammad Arslan 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 Biogas Utilization Technologies 118 6.3 Use of Biogas as Trigeneration 119 6.4 Biogas as a Transportation Fuels 120 6.5 Use of Biogas in Reciprocating Engine 121 6.6 Spark Ignition Gas Engine 123 6.7 Use of Biogas in Generator 124 6.8 Use of Biogas in Gas Turbines 125 6.9 Usage of Biogas in Fuel Cell 125 6.10 Hydrogen Production from Biogas 125 6.11 Biogas Cleaning for its Utilization 125 6.11.1 Carbon Dioxide 125 6.11.2 Water 126 6.11.3 Hydrogen Sulfide 126 6.11.4 Oxygen and Nitrogen 126 6.11.5 Ammonia 127 6.11.6 Volatile Organic Compounds 127 6.11.7 Particles 127 6.11.8 Foams and Solid Particles 127 6.12 Different Approaches for H2S Removal 128 6.12.1 Iron Sponge 128 6.12.2 Proprietary Scrubber Systems 129 6.12.3 Ferric Chloride Injection 129 6.12.4 Biological Method 130 6.13 Different Approaches for Moisture Reduction 130 6.13.1 Compression or Condensation 130 6.13.2 Adsorption 130 6.13.3 Absorption 130 6.14 Siloxane Removal 131 6.14.1 Gas Drying 131 6.15 CO2 Separation 132 6.15.1 Cryogenic Technique 132 6.15.2 Water Scrubber 133 6.15.3 Adsorption 133 6.15.4 Membrane Separation 134 6.16 Conclusion 135 References 136 7 Digestate from Agricultural Biogas Plant – Properties and Management 141 Wojciech Czekała 7.1 Introduction 141 7.2 Digestate from Agricultural Biogas Plant – Production, Properties, and Processing 142 7.2.1 Production 142 7.2.2 Properties 142 7.2.3 Processing 144 7.3 Digestate from Agricultural Biogas Plant – Management 145 7.3.1 Raw Digestate Fertilization 145 7.3.2 Liquid Fraction Management 146 7.3.3 Solid Fraction Management 147 7.3.4 Energy Management of the Solid Fraction 149 7.4 Conclusion 150 References 150 8 Environmental Aspects of Biogas Production 155 Yelizaveta Chernysh, Viktoriia Chubur, and Hynek Roubík 8.1 Introduction 155 8.2 Impact of Farms and Livestock Complexes on the Environment 157 8.3 The Environmental Benefits of Biogas Production 158 8.4 Environmental Safety of the Integrated Model of Bioprocesses of Hydrogen Production and Methane Generation in the Stages of Anaerobic Fermentation of Waste 162 8.5 Life Cycle Assessment for Biogas Production 165 8.6 Environmental Issue of Biogas Market in Ukraine – Case Study 167 8.7 Conclusion 172 References 172 9 Hybrid Environmental and Economic Assessment of Biogas Plants in Integrated Organic Waste Management Strategies 179 Amal Elfeky, Kazi Fattah, and Mohamed Abdallah 9.1 Introduction 179 9.2 Methodology 180 9.2.1 Overview 180 9.2.2 Waste Management Scenarios 181 9.2.3 Life Cycle Assessment 182 9.2.3.1 Goal and Scope Definition 182 9.2.3.2 Inventory Analysis 183 9.2.3.3 Impact Assessment 183 9.2.3.4 Interpretation 184 9.2.4 Life Cycle Costing 184 9.2.5 Eco-Efficiency Analysis 185 9.2.6 Case Study: The UAE 185 9.3 Results and Discussion 185 9.3.1 Material and Energy Recovery 186 9.3.2 Life Cycle Assessment 188 9.3.2.1 Overall Impact Assessment 188 9.3.3 Life Cycle Costing 190 9.3.3.1 Cost and Revenue Streams 190 9.3.3.2 Net Present Value 191 9.3.4 Eco-Efficiency Analysis 192 9.4 Conclusion 193 References 193 10 Reduction of the Carbon Footprint in Terms of Agricultural Biogas Plants 195 Agnieszka Wawrzyniak Acronyms 195 10.1 Introduction 196 10.1.1 Manure Management and Biomethane Potential in Poland and EU Countries 196 10.1.2 Substrates Used for Biogas Plants in Poland 196 10.1.3 GHG Emissions from Agriculture and Biogas Plants as Tool for its Reduction 198 10.2 Methodology of CF 201 10.2.1 GHG Fluxes from Agriculture and Tools for its Calculations 202 10.2.2 System Boundaries for Biogas Plant and Data Collection 203 10.3 Life Cycle CO2 Footprints of Various Biogas Projects – Comparison with Literature Results 204 10.4 Conclusions 207 References 207 11 Financial Sustainability and Stakeholder Partnerships of Biogas Plants 211 To-Hung Tsui, Le Zhang, Jonathan T. E. Lee, Yanjun Dai, and Yen Wah Tong 11.1 Introduction 211 11.2 Basic Technological Factors 212 11.3 Economic Evaluation and Failures 214 11.3.1 Investment Risks for Fixed Assets 214 11.3.2 Failures and Intervention 215 11.4 Stakeholders Partnership and Co-governance 216 11.4.1 Government 216 11.4.2 Consultant and Constructor 216 11.4.3 Source of Waste Streams 217 11.4.4 Customers for Energy and Resource 217 11.5 Summary and Outlooks 217 Acknowledgments 218 References 218 12 Measuring the Resilience of Supply Critical Systems: The Case of the Biogas Value Chain 221 Raul Carlsson and Tatiana Nevzorova 12.1 Introduction 221 12.2 Background 222 12.3 Methodology 223 12.4 Measurement Scheme 224 12.4.1 Introduction to the Measurement Concept 224 12.4.2 Measuring Management System Resilience 227 12.4.3 Measuring the Resilience of Physical Resources and Assets 229 12.4.4 Total System Resilience 230 12.4.5 Applying the System Resilience Model to the Biogas Value Chain 231 12.4.5.1 Analysis of Two Supply Chains Without Disruptions 231 12.4.5.2 Disrupting Scenarios with Parametrized Resilience Functions 233 12.4.5.3 Analysis of Two Supply Chains with Disruptions 234 12.5 Conclusion and Recommendations 239 References 240 13 Theory and Practice in Strategic Niche Planning: The Polish Biogas Case 243 Stelios Rozakis, Katerina Troullaki, and Piotr Jurga 13.1 Introduction 243 13.1.1 The Promising Potential of Biogas Transition in Central Eastern European Countries 243 13.1.2 State-of-the-Art Research for Navigating Sustainability Transitions 245 13.1.3 Chapter Organization 246 13.2 Main Conceptual Frameworks for Studying Sustainability Transitions 246 13.2.1 Strategic Niche Management (SNM) 246 13.2.2 Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) 247 13.2.3 Transition Management (TM) 248 13.2.4 Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) 248 13.3 Studying Biogas from a Sustainability Transitions Perspective 249 13.3.1 Landscape, Regime, and Niche Dynamics 249 13.3.2 Policy Coherence for Niche Development 250 13.3.3 Transition Pathways 252 13.3.4 Social Network Analysis 252 13.4 Strategic Niche Planning for Sustainable Transitions 255 13.4.1 Methodological Steps 255 13.4.2 Case Study: Biogas Sector in Poland 259 13.5 Strategic Propositions and Concluding Comments 261 13.5.1 Research and Development 261 13.5.2 Education Activity – Enhance Brokerage 271 13.5.3 Networking-Clusters 271 13.5.4 Resource Mobilization 271 13.5.5 Elaborate Legislation 272 13.5.6 Legitimation 272 13.5.7 Incentives for Market Penetration 272 13.5.8 Demand Pull Actions and Rural Development 273 13.6 Conclusion 273 References 274 14 Social Aspects of Agricultural Biogas Plants 279 Wojciech Czekała 14.1 Introduction 279 14.2 The Benefits of Agricultural Biogas Plants for Society 280 14.2.1 Biogas Plant as a Renewable Energy Production Facility 280 14.2.2 Reducing the Negative Impact of Waste on the Environment 280 14.2.3 Create Markets for Substrates Used in Biogas Production 281 14.2.4 Integration with Agro-Industrial Plants 281 14.2.5 Production and Use of Electricity 282 14.2.6 Production and Use of Heat 282 14.2.7 Possibility of Biomethane Production 283 14.2.8 Local Fuel in Developing Countries 283 14.2.9 Production of Valuable Fertilizer 284 14.2.10 Creating New Jobs for the Local Community 284 14.2.11 Development of Nearby Infrastructure and Companies 285 14.2.12 Tax Revenues to the Budget of Local Government Units 285 14.3 Social Acceptability of Agricultural Biogas Plants 285 14.3.1 Fear of Something New 286 14.3.2 Concerns About Unpleasant Odors 286 14.3.3 Concerns About Contamination of Soils and Groundwater When Using Digestate as Fertilizer 286 14.3.4 Concerns About Declining Property Values Around Biogas Plants 287 14.3.5 Concerns About the Destruction of Access Roads 287 14.4 Conclusion 287 References 288 15 Practices in Biogas Plant Operation: A Case Study from Poland 291 Tomasz Jasiński, Jan Jasiński, and Wojciech Czekała 15.1 Introduction 291 15.2 Legal Aspects Related to Running a Business in the Field of Biogas Production and Waste Management 292 15.2.1 Integrated Permit or Waste Processing Permit 293 15.2.2 Approval of the Plant by Veterinary Services for the Disposal of Waste of Animal Origin 294 15.2.3 Permit to Place Digestate on the Market 295 15.2.4 Permit to Introduce to the Electricity Distribution Network 296 15.3 Biogas Plant Components: A Case Study from Poland 297 15.3.1 Hall for Receiving and Processing Slaughterhouse Waste 297 15.3.2 Substrate Storage Yard 297 15.3.3 Solid Substrate Dispenser 297 15.3.4 Receiving Buffer Tank for Liquid Substrates 298 15.3.5 Solid Substrate Buffer Tank 298 15.3.6 Mixing Buffer Tank 298 15.3.7 Buffer and Mixing Tank 298 15.3.8 Technological Steam Generator 298 15.3.9 Main Pumping Station 299 15.3.10 First-stage Fermentation Tanks 299 15.3.11 Second-stage Fermentation Tank (3900 m3) with Biogas Tank (1800 m3) 300 15.3.12 Condensing Circuit 301 15.3.13 Biogas Refining System 301 15.3.14 Cogeneration Modules 301 15.3.15 Digestate Storage Reservoirs 301 15.3.16 Biogas Torch 302 15.3.17 Biofilter 302 15.4 Functioning of a Biogas Plant Processing Problematic Waste: A Case Study from Poland 302 15.4.1 Searching and Obtaining Substrates 303 15.4.2 Receiving, Storage, and Processing of the Substrate, Feeding of Raw Materials 304 15.4.3 Energy Production and Biogas Management 305 15.4.4 Digestate Management 306 15.4.5 Management of an Agricultural Biogas Plant 307 15.5 Summary 308 References 309 Index 311