Urban Geography

Preface xiii 1 An Introduction to the Changing Field of Urban Geography 1 Why We Study Cities 1 How We Study Cities 4 The Field of Urban Geography 5 Box 1.1 Bright Lights, Big Cities 6 The Origin and Evolution of Urban Geography 8 Approaches to Urban Geographic Research 9 Streams of Urban Geographic Research 10 Spatial Analysis 10 Marxist Urban Geography and Urban Political Economy 13 Critical Social Theory in Urban Geography 13 Feminist Urban Geography 14 Postmodern Urban Geography 14 Nature and Urban Geography 15 Race 15 Defining Cities 16 Rural–Urban Continuum 16 What Is the Spatial Extent of Cities? 17 Box 1.2 Micropolitan Areas 19 Introduction to This Textbook 21 Wrapping Up 21 Readings 22 2 the Origins and Development of Cities 23 What Are Cities? 23 Preconditions to Urban Formation 25 Box 2.1 Cities without Agriculture? 25 Ecology, Technology, and Power 26 Theories of Urban Origins 27 Patterns of Early Urbanization 30 Locations of Early Cities 30 Diffusion of Urbanization 30 Box 2.2 Uncovering Lost Cities 32 Urban Evolution and Early Economic Imperatives: Traditional Cities 33 The Early City- States: Sumeria 33 Other Ancient Cities 36 Imperial Cities 39 Box 2.3 The Collective Alternative 39 Cities as Engines of Economic Growth: Capitalism, Industrialism, and Urbanization 43 Box 2.4 Death of a City 44 The New Trading Cities 44 Box 2.5 The First Ghettos 50 Industrial Cities 51 Box 2.6 Designing Spaces: Bastide Cities and the Grand Manner 52 Wrapping Up 57 Readings 57 3 the Evolution of the American Urban System: Origins Through Industrialization 59 Urban Systems and Urban Hierarchies 59 Rank- Size Rule and Primate Cities 61 Mercantilism and the Development of the Colonial Urban System 63 Box 3.1 America’s Anti- Urban Bias 67 Box 3.2 Central Place Theory 70 Economic Eras of North American Urbanization 70 Economic Eras, Transportation Networks, and the Evolution of the US Urban System 72 Frontier Mercantilism (1790–1830s) 74 Box 3.3 The Erie Canal 76 Early Industrial Capitalism and Iron Rails (1830s–1880s) 77 National Industrial Capitalism and Steel Rails (1880s–1920s) 82 Wrapping Up 87 Readings 88 4 Economic Eras and the Urban System: Industrialization, Decline, and Globalization 89 1920s–1970s: Mature Industrial Capitalism 89 Automobiles 89 Box 4.1 The Interstate Highway System 92 The Great Depression 93 Airplanes 94 1970s–Present: Post- Industrial Neoliberal Capitalism 96 An Urban System in Crisis 96 Rise of the Service and Information Economies 101 High Technology and the Creative Economy 103 Globalization and the Global Urban System 104 Capitalism, Power, and World Cities 105 The World City Hierarchy 107 The Global City 110 A Network of World Cities: Global Interconnections 111 The Tourist World City 111 Telecommunications, Interconnectivity, and World Cities 112 Dispersal or Concentration? 113 Telecommunications and Financial Markets 114 Telecommunications and Urban Society 114 Internet Connectivity and Cloud Data Infrastructure 115 Box 4.2 The Gravity Model in Local and Regional and Global Context 116 Wrapping Up 118 Readings 119 5 Urban Land Use, the Central Business District, Gentrification, And the Growth of Suburbs 120 Toward a Model of Land Use 121 Urban Functions 121 Model of Land Value 122 The Central Business District 125 Manufacturing in the Frame 127 Residential Users 133 Box 5.1 Health and Urban Geography: The Impact of COVID- 19 on Downtowns 135 Revitalizing Downtowns 137 Central Business Districts 137 Box 5.2 Downtown Casinos 138 America’s New Downtowns 139 Revitalizing Neighborhoods: Gentrification 140 Five Waves of Gentrification 142 Suburban Changes 145 Box 5.3 Megalopolis 148 Wrapping Up 149 Readings 149 6 Foundations of Urban Social Landscapes 151 Ecological Approach to Cities 151 “Community Lost”: European Perspectives on Cities 152 The Chicago School of Sociology 153 Box 6.1 Rebutting the “Community Lost” Perspective 154 Box 6.2 Health and Urban Geography: Chicago and the 1918 Influenza Epidemic 157 Traditional Models of Urban Spatial Structure 160 Burgess Concentric Zone Model 160 Hoyt Sector Model 160 Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model 162 More Complex Models 162 Social Area Analysis and Factorial Ecology 163 Box 6.3 Wirth’s “Urbanism as a Way of Life” 164 The Urban Mosaic 165 Contemporary Urban Social Space: Globalization and Cities of Difference 165 Globalization: General Trends 167 Elements of the Global City 168 “In Between” Neighborhoods in the Global City 170 Los Angeles School Urbanism 172 Cities of Difference 173 Wrapping Up 176 Readings 177 7 Urban Housing Markets: Sprawl, Blight, and Regeneration 179 Housing and Housing Markets 179 Sectors of Housing Tenure 180 Housing Markets: Demand 181 Box 7.1 Hedonic House Price Models 181 Box 7.2 NIMBY, LULUs, and YIMBY: How Homeowners React to Adjacent Land Uses 182 Housing Markets: Supply 183 Housing Market Geographies and Neighborhood Change 183 Urban Ecology and Housing Markets: Invasion and Succession 183 Filtering and Vacancy Chains 184 Life‐ Cycle Notions of Neighborhood Change 186 Government Involvement in Housing Markets 187 Securing Home Ownership through Loan Guarantees 188 The Secondary Mortgage Market: A New System of Housing Finance 189 Promoting Home Ownership to Address Inequality: Promise and Peril 190 Unequal Access to Housing 190 Real Estate Agents and Differentiated Access 190 Discrimination in Lending 194 Accumulated Impacts of Housing Market Discrimination 195 Box 7.3 Housing Markets and the Global Financial Crisis 196 Suburban Housing and Postwar Sprawl 199 Supply and Demand Factors 199 Box 7.4 Health and Urban Geography: Sprawl Leads to Depression 200 Sprawl and the Federal Government: Housing Finance 201 Sprawl and the Federal Government: Freeways and Automobility 202 “Blight” and Inner‐ City Housing 203 Early Postwar Redevelopment Pressures 203 The Housing Dynamics of Redevelopment 204 Displacement and Public Housing 205 Wrapping Up 208 Readings 208 8 Segregation, Race, and Urban Poverty 210 Current Patterns of Racial Residential Segregation 211 Census 2020 Figures 211 Box 8.1 Types and Measures of Segregation 212 Recent Change 215 What Causes Segregation? 217 Race and the North American Ghetto 219 The “First” North American Ghetto 219 Box 8.2 Anti- Black White Mob Violence: 1919 Red Summer and the 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre 221 Postwar Institutionalized Ghettos 224 Poverty and the City and Beyond 231 Spatial Concentration of Urban Poverty 231 Consequences of Concentrated Poverty: Neighborhood Effects 233 Box 8.3 Health and Urban Geography: Race, Poverty, and COVID- 19 Health 234 Responding to Urban Poverty 237 War on Poverty 237 Retrenchment 238 Wrapping Up 241 Readings 242 9 Immigration, Ethnicity, and Urbanism 244 Definitions of Immigrants 245 The Era of Immigration and US Urbanization 246 The New Catholic Arrivals 247 Box 9.1 Strangers From a Different Shore: Chinese and Japanese Migration to the United States 248 The New European Immigration 252 The Ethnic Kaleidoscope of Today 256 Latino Migration and Its Impact on Cities 259 Box 9.2 Ethnic Diversity Within Canadian Cities 260 Mexicans 263 Cubans 265 Box 9.3 The Creation of Ethnic Economies 266 Puerto Ricans 268 Latino Influences 269 New Asian Immigration 270 Urban Orientation and Some Models of Asian Segregation 271 Asian Indians 273 Indochinese 274 Koreans 276 Asian Influences 277 Wrapping Up 277 Readings 278 10 Metropolitan Governance and Fragmentation 279 Urban Governance and the Growth of Services 280 Expanding Urban Services 280 Box 10.1 Health and Urban Geography: Public Health and the City 281 Box 10.2 Street Plans in Early America 283 Financing the City 285 Who Governs the City? 288 Stages in Urban Governance 288 Power in the City 290 Contemporary Fragmentation in the Metropolis 293 Increasing Fragmentation 293 A Positive View of Metropolitan Fragmentation 295 Fiscal Disparities 296 Countering the Fragmented Metropolis 298 Annexations 298 Metropolitan Government 301 Box 10.3 Metropolitanization and Language in Montreal 302 Wrapping Up 304 Readings 304 11 Planning the Better City 305 Making the Case for Planning 306 Aesthetics 306 Efficiency 308 Social Equity Planning 309 Maintaining Property Values 311 Environmental Protection 311 Development of Modern Planning 313 Visionaries and the Urban Ideal 313 Box 11.1 Health and Urban Geography: Planning a Healthier City 314 Legal Basis for Planning 318 Box 11.2 Planning Rights in Other Countries 320 Growth of Planning as a Profession in the United States 321 Political Nature of Planning 323 Comprehensive Plans and Tools of Modern Planning 325 Box 11.3 The Search for Fair Share Housing in New Jersey 326 Elements and Steps in Comprehensive Plan Development 327 Zoning 329 Problems with Zoning and Responses 332 Growth Management 337 Wrapping Up 338 Readings 339 12 Urban Transportation 341 Urban Transportation and Changes in Urban Form 342 The Walking City 343 Horsecar and Streetcar City 344 Recreational Auto Era 346 Freeway Auto Era 347 Transportation Policy Principles and Actors 349 Principles of Transportation and Costs and Benefits 349 Levels of Governance 351 Transportation Behavior 354 Travel Types 354 Box 12.1 Health and Urban Geography: Urban Transportation in the Time of COVID 356 Modes of Transportation in Commuting and Other Forms of Travel 356 Box 12.2 Building a Sustainable Transportation Network 360 Social Aspects of Transportation 363 Access 364 Box 12.3 The Long Road Home (and to Work) 366 Displacement 367 Wrapping Up 370 Readings 370 13 the Urban Environment 372 Conceptual Foundations 372 Urban Environmental Kuznets Curve 373 City–Nature Dialectic 374 Urban Political Ecology 375 Realms of Urban Nature 376 Water 376 Box 13.1 Health and Urban Geography: Urban Political Ecology and Water in Flint, Michigan 378 Urban Air 383 Box 13.2 Health and Urban Geography: Canadian Wildfires and US Air Quality 384 Box 13.3 Health and Urban Geography: Killer Smog 385 Garbage and Solid Wastes 387 Energy 390 Urban Hazards and Disasters 392 Flooding 393 Hurricanes (Typhoons, Cyclones) 393 Earthquakes 395 Heat 395 Wildfires 396 Cities and Climate Change 398 Wrapping Up 398 Readings 399 14 Cities in the Developed World 400 European Cities 400 Urbanization and the European City System 401 Characteristic Features of European Cities 403 Box 14.1 Stockholm’s Urban Planning 406 Box 14.2 Health and Urban Geography: COVID- 19 Responses in European Cities 408 Box 14.3 Postwar Urban Developments: Rome’s EUR Center and Paris’s La Defense 412 Aspects of Change 417 Cities in Post- Communist Europe 420 Communist Urban Development 422 Post- Communist Development 423 Box 14.4 The Old and New City of Prague 424 Cities in Japan 425 Structure of Japanese Cities 426 Changes in Japanese Cities 428 Wrapping Up 428 Readings 429 15 Cities in the Less Developed and Newly Developed World 430 The New Urban Majority 432 How the Cities Have Grown 433 Demographic Factors Involved in Urban Growth 436 Box 15.1 Migration as a Household Process 438 Origins of Urbanization in Less Developed Countries 439 Modernization Perspective 439 International Political Economy Perspective 441 Characteristics of LDC Cities 447 Effects of Growth 447 Housing 448 Box 15.2 Health and Urban Geography: Urban Health in the Developing World 450 Box 15.3 Cities in the Sand: Egypt’s New Towns 454 Employment Opportunities and the Informal Sector 458 Wrapping Up 462 Readings 462 16 Regional Variations in Urban Structure and Form in the Less Developed World 464 The Latin American City 465 Box 16.1 The Middle Eastern City 466 Box 16.2 Health and Urban Geography: China’s COVID- 19 Response 467 Colonial Legacies 468 Modern Latin American Cities 468 Sub- Saharan African Cities 475 Indigenous Influences 476 European Intervention 478 Box 16.3 Apartheid in Urban South Africa 478 Modern African Cities 480 South Asian Cities 482 A Typology of South Asian Cities 483 Modern Challenges 486 Southeast Asian Cities 489 Indigenous Influences: Sacred and Market Cities 489 The Colonial City in Southeast Asia 491 Modern Cities 493 Wrapping Up 497 Readings 497 Index 499