Typical and Atypical Development

Preface xii Introduction 1 From childhood to adolescence 1 Parenthood 1 Concepts of normality and abnormality 2 Age- and stage-related tasks 11 Crises of development 12 The developmental history 13 Part I: Typical Development Where the Journey Begins the Intrauterine Stages and Perinatal Period Introduction 17 Chapter 1 The First Steps 19 Conception: the beginning of life 19 Genetic variation and influence 22 The genotype 26 The human genome project 26 Similarities and differences in individuals and groups 28 Progress from conception to birth 30 Summary of prenatal events: times after conception 39 Unanswered questions 42 Chapter 2 The Perinatal Period 44 Anticipation of the birth 44 Fads and fashions 45 The birth: labour and delivery 47 The mother and postnatal infant care 51 Maternal bonding theory 54 Bonding to the unborn baby 56 The competent infant 57 Parenting 58 Siblings 59 Environmental influences 60 Representational models of the infant 62 Part II: Typical Development Infancy Introduction 63 The first relationship 63 The development of sociability 65 Crying and smiling as ‘social communication’ 65 The nature of attachment 67 Internal representations and selfhood 71 Development of self–other awareness 72 Chapter 3 Early Childhood: The Pre-School Stage Infant Growth and Development 75 Physical development 75 The nervous system 78 The brain growth spurt 78 The brain and communication 80 Growth of the brain 81 Biological basis of personality 83 Sleeping patterns 85 Feeding behaviour 89 Chapter 4 Perceptual, Motor and Language Development 90 Perceptual development 90 Vision and fine motor movement 91 Motor development 94 The proactive brain 99 Speech and language development 100 Part III: Typical Development Adaptation and Learning Introduction 107 Adjustment and adaptation 107 Cultural influences 109 The family environment 110 Childcare practices 110 Maternal privation and deprivation 111 The father’s role 113 Divorce 116 Adoption 119 Surrogate parenting 120 Learning theory 120 Models of learning 122 The adaptive role of fear 127 Generalized anxiety 129 Chapter 5 Early Childhood: The Pre-School Stage Socialization and Cognitive Development 131 Socialization and self-control 131 Learning and identification: social and moral awareness 132 Social cognition 134 Social compliance 135 The development of aggressive behaviour 137 Sex-role (gender) identity 139 Socializing tasks 141 Cognitive development 145 Play 151 Theory of mind 153 Chapter 6 Middle and Late Childhood the School-Going Child 156 Developing a new individuality 156 Rules and values 158 Expectations of parents 159 Social skills and friendships 160 Exchange theory 162 Siblings: the longest lasting relationships 163 Chapter 7 Adolescence: Leaving Childhood Behind 164 The changes of puberty 164 The end of childhood 166 Adolescent sexuality 171 Identity and self-image 173 The ending of puberty 176 Part IV: Atypical Development the Hazardous Route Introduction 177 Issues of assessment, definition and measurement 177 The journey begins again: prenatal influences 178 Genetic influences: inherited abnormalities 179 Chromosomal abnormalities 180 Genetic accidents 183 Patterns of genetic transmission 184 Prenatal, antenatal and neonatal screening 187 Behavioural genetics 187 Neuropsychological causation 188 Chapter 8 The Perilous First Journey the Inhospitable Environment 189 Maternal stress and inherited abnormalities 189 Biological adversity 190 Teratogens 191 Chapter 9 The Hazardous Perinatal Period the Atypical Route 195 The Apgar test 195 Survival repertoire 197 Birth complications 198 Prematurity 199 Birth trauma 205 Anoxia 206 Parental attachment to atypical infants 208 Stillbirth and infant death 211 Chapter 10 Early Childhood Atypical Physical, Sensory and Motor Development 213 Physical disorders and disabilities 213 Congenital physical anomalies 218 Abnormalities of haemoglobin 219 Impairments of vision 219 Impairments of hearing 221 Motor impairments 222 Impairments of speech and language 225 Executive functions of the brain 229 Neurological damage 230 Tics and Tourette’s syndrome 232 Head injuries 233 Chapter 11 The Pre-School Child Atypical Behaviour 236 The authoritative parent 236 Socialization 237 Assertive/commanding behaviour in young children 239 Adverse temperamental attributes 239 The ‘difficult’ child 241 Oppositional defiant disorder 242 Developmental (physical) task problems 244 Chapter 12 The School-Going Child Atypical Behaviour 252 Educational failure 252 Insecurity based problems 253 Reactive attachment disorder 254 Peer group problems 255 Rejection 256 Social skills problems 256 Selective mutism 257 School refusal 257 Attention deficit and hyperactivity at school 260 Severe (profound) learning disabilities 263 Specific learning disabilities 263 Dyslexia 265 Part V: Atypical Development Mental Health and Mental Illness Introduction 269 Positive mental health 269 Mental illness 270 Chapter 13 Adolescence: Unsocial and Antisocial Behaviour 275 Prejudice 275 Risky sexual activity 278 Drug use and abuse 280 Antisocial behaviour: conduct disorders 281 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 284 Bullying 291 Delinquency 291 Personality disorder 293 Moral development 294 Chapter 14 Psychological and Psychiatric Disorders 296 Mental health problems 296 Anxiety states 299 Phobic anxiety 301 Panic attacks 305 Agoraphobia 306 Obsessive–compulsive disorder 308 Depression (affective disorder) 309 Schizophrenia 315 Part VI: Atypical Development Children with Special Needs Introduction 321 Defining need 321 Developmental disability 321 The child who is ill 323 Child protection 324 Chapter 15 Pervasive Developmental Difficulties Early to Late Childhood and Adolescence 325 Intellectual (learning) disability 325 Classification of intellectual impairment 328 Pervasive developmental disorders 333 The autistic continuum 333 Asperger syndrome/disorder 347 Anorexia nervosa 348 Chapter 16 When a Child is Ill 357 Chronic illness 357 Implications of acute and chronic illness 361 Serious illness (hospitalization) 363 Development of the concept of death 363 Ethical issues 368 Chapter 17 Child Abuse and Maltreatment 371 Physical abuse 372 Emotional abuse 373 Child sexual abuse 373 Epilogue 381 Appendix I: False and True Beliefs 383 Appendix II: Measurement of Intelligence 385 References and Bibliography 388 Index 411