Sensory Profiling of Dairy Products

List of Contributors xiii Preface to the Technical Series xix Preface xix 1 Sensory Analysis and Consumer Mind- Sets and Emotions for Dairy Products 1 Attila Gere, Barbara Biró, Dalma Radványi, Ryan Zemel, Petraq Papajorgji and Howard Moskowitz 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 History of the sensory analysis of dairy products 1 1.1.2 Changes in consumer habits 3 1.2 How MG approaches the problem of understanding new versus traditional in cheese 4 1.3 Looking at different groups of respondents 9 1.4 Linking emotions to messages 11 1.5 Finding mind- sets in the population for future communication, research and sales efforts 12 1.6 The multiple contributions of MG to scientific investigation 14 1.7 The role of emotions 15 Acknowledgement 15 References 15 2 Physiology of Sensory Perception of Flavour and Mouthfeel Stimuli Imparted by Dairy Products 18 Lisa Methven, Stella Lignou, Stephanie Bull, Maria Jose Oruna- Concha and Rosa Sullivan 2.1 Introduction 18 2.2 Aroma perception 18 2.2.1 Physiology of aroma perception 19 2.3 Taste perception 21 2.3.1 Physiology of taste perception 22 2.3.2 Oleogustus, a taste response to fatty acids 25 2.3.3 Taste perception of peptides and diketopiperazines and their relevance to cheese 26 2.3.4 The perception of kokumi and its relevance to cheese 27 2.4 Mouthfeel perception 30 2.4.1 Physiology of mouthfeel perception 30 2.4.2 The perception of key mouthfeel attributes relevant to dairy products 31 2.4.3 The influence of oral processing and saliva 32 2.4.4 The perception of mouth- drying in high- protein dairy products 32 2.5 Chemesthesis 33 2.6 The influence of individual differences in phenotype and genotype and their relevance to the perception of dairy products 33 References 35 3 Sensory Data Analysis and Future Developments 44 Matthew McSweeney 3.1 Introduction 44 3.2 Scoring methods 45 3.2.1 Affective testing 45 3.2.2 Cluster analysis 46 3.2.3 Just about right 47 3.2.4 Intensity scales 48 3.3 Descriptive analysis 49 3.4 Rapid sensory analysis 51 3.4.1 Check- all- that- apply (CATA) 51 3.4.2 Projective mapping 53 3.5 Conclusions 54 References 54 4 Application of Multivariate Statistical Analysis and Machine Learning to Sensory Data Analysis 57 Ana C.M. Pinheiro, Elenilson G. Alves Filho, Michele N. Ribeiro, Jéssica F. Rodrigues, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Lorena M.A. Silva, Sueli Rodrigues, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Multivariate analysis applied to data from sensory assessment of dairy products 57 4.2.1 Principal component analysis 59 4.2.2 Correspondence analysis 60 4.2.3 Hierarchical cluster analysis 60 4.2.4 Generalised Procrustes analysis 60 4.2.5 Multiple- factor analysis 60 4.2.6 Distatis 61 4.3 Machine learning 62 4.4 Conclusions 65 References 65 5 Projective Sensory Evaluation Methods for Dairy Products 68 Adriana Gambaro, Marcelo Miraballes, Adriano G. da Cruz and Erick A. Esmerino 5.1 Introduction 68 5.2 Categories of projective methods 69 5.2.1 Word association 69 5.2.2 Construction task 72 5.2.3 Completion task 73 5.2.4 Choice ordering task 75 5.2.5 Expressive task 76 5.3 Comparison of projective techniques in dairy products case studies 76 5.4 Analysis of projective technique data 77 5.5 Online versus paper- based surveys 78 5.6 Conclusions 78 References 78 6 Sensory Attributes of Liquid Milk Products 81 Elson R. Filho, Amanda A. Prestes, Maria H. Canella, Elane S. Prudencio, Mônica Q. Freitas, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz 6.1 Introduction 81 6.2 Sensory evaluation of heat- treated fluid milk 85 6.3 Influence of heat treatment on sensory characteristics of milk 91 6.3.1 Sensory profile of pasteurised milk 93 6.3.2 Sensory profile of ESL (extended- shelf- life) milk 94 6.3.3 Sensory profile of UHT (ultra- high- temperature) milk 95 6.3.4 Sensory profile of sterilised milk 96 6.4 Sensory profile of flavoured milks 97 References 99 7 Sensory Profile of Yoghurt and Related Products 103 Amanda A. Prestes, Elane S. Prudencio, Maria H. Canella, Mônica Q. Freitas, Elson R. Filho, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz 7.1 Introduction 103 7.2 Yoghurt and related products 104 7.2.1 Natural yoghurt 104 7.2.2 Concentrated yoghurts 105 7.2.3 Sweetened and flavoured yoghurts 105 7.2.4 Drinking yoghurt 106 7.2.5 Frozen yoghurt 106 7.3 Sensory profile of yoghurt and related products 106 7.3.1 Sensory profile of natural yoghurt (set and stirred type) 107 7.3.2 Sensory profile of concentrated yoghurts 110 7.3.3 Sensory profile of sweetened and flavoured yoghurt products 111 7.3.4 Drinking yoghurt 114 7.3.5 Sensory profile of frozen yoghurt 116 References 116 8 Sensory Profiles of Middle Eastern and Related Cheeses 120 Barbaros Özer, Şebnem Ö. Budak and Hamid Ghoddusi 8.1 Introduction 120 8.2 Sensory evaluation of Middle Eastern and related cheeses 120 8.3 Cheeses ripened in brine 123 8.3.1 Ezine 126 8.3.2 Edirne Beyaz 127 8.3.3 Feta 127 8.3.4 Lighvan and Iranian White cheeses 129 8.3.5 Akkawi 130 8.3.6 Domiati 130 8.3.7 Mish 132 8.3.8 Nabulshi 132 8.3.9 Erzurum Civil 132 8.3.10 Izmir Tulum 132 8.3.11 Van Otlu 133 8.3.12 Urfa 133 8.4 Scalded and pasta- filata- type cheeses 133 8.4.1 Kashkaval 134 8.4.2 Halloumi 134 8.4.3 Graviera 137 8.4.4 Diyarbakır Orgu 137 8.5 Cheeses ripened in animal skins or pots 138 8.5.1 Divle Tulum 138 8.5.2 Savak Tulum 138 8.5.3 Yozgat Canak 139 8.6 Kopanisti cheese 139 References 139 9 Sensory Profiles of Pan- American Fresh, Soft and Other Cheese Varieties 145 Callebe Camelo- Silva, Monique Juna Lopes Leite, Giordana Demaman Arend, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Marco Di Luccio, Silvani Verruck, Erick A. Esmerino and Adriano G. da Cruz 9.1 Introduction 145 9.2 Oaxaca cheese 146 9.3 Queso Chihuahua 148 9.4 Mozzarella- type pizza topping cheese 150 9.5 Quark 153 9.6 Cottage cheese 156 9.7 Queso Fresco 158 9.8 Queso Blanco 160 9.9 Cotija cheese 161 9.10 Mexican Manchego 162 9.11 Minas Frescal 163 9.12 Coalho cheese 166 9.13 Conclusions 168 References 170 10 Sensory Characteristics of Cheddar and Related Cheeses Varieties 179 Maurice G. O’Sullivan 10.1 Introduction 179 10.2 Cheddar and related varieties 180 10.2.1 Cheddar 180 10.2.2 Washed- curd cheeses 181 10.2.3 Monterey Jack 181 10.3 Cheddar cheese grading methods 182 10.4 Sensory profiling methods for Cheddar cheese 182 10.5 Origin of Cheddar flavour and texture development 186 10.6 Reduced- salt Cheddar 188 10.7 Reduced- fat Cheddar 189 References 190 11 Sensory Characteristics of Swiss- type Cheese Varieties 195 Barbara Guggenbühl Gasser, Pascal Fuchsmann and Marie- Therese Fröhlich- Wyder 11.1 Introduction 195 11.2 Sensory evaluation methods 196 11.2.1 Grading and quality scoring by cheese experts 196 11.2.2 Descriptive profiling methods (quantitative descriptive tests) 196 11.2.3 Consumer testing 198 11.3 Sensory characteristics of Swiss- type cheese varieties 198 11.3.1 Role of propionic acid fermentation 198 11.3.2 Appearance 199 11.3.3 Texture 200 11.3.4 Flavour 201 11.4 Relationship between sensory data and analytical measurements 211 11.4.1 Relationship between microflora and perceived flavour 212 11.4.2 Relationship between volatile and non- volatile compounds and perceived flavour 213 11.5 Relationship between consumer data and descriptive panel data 218 11.6 Perception of defects of Swiss- type cheese varieties 219 11.7 Conclusions 219 References 220 12 Sensory Profiles of Very Hard Italian Cheeses and Related Varieties 225 Antonella Santillo and Marzia Albenzio 12.1 Introduction 225 12.2 Grana- type cheeses 225 12.2.1 Grana Padano 229 12.2.2 Trentingrana 231 12.2.3 Parmigiano Reggiano 232 12.2.4 Reggianito 233 12.3 Pecorino- type cheeses 233 12.3.1 Canestrato Pugliese 236 12.3.2 Fiore Sardo and Pecorino Romana 237 12.3.3 Canestrato di Moliterno 238 12.3.4 Idiazábal, Manchego, Roncal and Castellano 238 12.4 Asiago and Montasio cheeses 239 12.4.1 Asiago 240 12.4.2 Montasio 241 12.5 Conclusions 242 References 243 13 Sensory Profiles of Iberian and Related Cheese Varieties 246 Elena Molina, Lourdes Amigo and Daniel Lozano- Ojalvo 13.1 Introduction 246 13.2 Fresh Iberian cheese varieties 250 13.2.1 Afuega’l Pitu 250 13.2.2 Camerano 250 13.2.3 Cebreiro 260 13.2.4 De Murcia 260 13.3 Soft and semi- soft Iberian cheese 261 13.3.1 Arzúa- Ulloa 261 13.3.2 Azeitão 262 13.3.3 Cabrales 262 13.3.4 De Flor de Guía, De Guía and De Media Flor de Guía 263 13.3.5 De La Serena 263 13.3.6 De Valdeón 264 13.3.7 L’Alt Urgell y la Cerdanya 264 13.3.8 Los Beyos 264 13.3.9 Mahón- Menorca 265 13.3.10 Majorero 266 13.3.11 Mestiço Tolosa 267 13.3.12 Nata de Cantabria 267 13.3.13 Palmero 267 13.3.14 Pico 268 13.3.15 Quesucos de Liébana 268 13.3.16 Torta del Casar 269 13.4 Semi- hard Iberian cheeses varieties 269 13.4.1 Amarelo da Beira Baixa 270 13.4.2 Castelo Branco 270 13.4.3 De Murcia al Vino 270 13.4.4 Gamonedo 271 13.4.5 Ibores 271 13.4.6 Picón Bejes- Tresviso 272 13.4.7 San Simón da Costa 272 13.4.8 Serpa 273 13.4.9 Serra da Estrela 273 13.4.10 Terrincho 273 13.4.11 Tetilla 274 13.5 Semi- hard or hard Iberian cheese varieties 274 13.5.1 Casín 275 13.5.2 Évora 275 13.5.3 Idiazábal 275 13.5.4 Manchego 276 13.5.5 Nisa 276 13.5.6 Picante de Beira Baixa 277 13.5.7 Rabaçal 277 13.5.8 Roncal 277 13.5.9 São Jorge 278 13.5.10 Zamorano 278 13.6 Hard or extra- hard Iberian cheese varieties 278 13.6.1 Cabra Transmontano 279 References 279 14 Sensory Evaluation in Processed Cheese Innovation 286 Silvani Verruck, Saionara Sartor, Mônica Q. Freitas, Tatiana C. Pimentel, Erick A. Esmerino, Adriano G. da Cruz and Marice N. Oliveira 14.1 Introduction 286 14.2 Processed cheese products 288 14.3 Sensory characteristics of processed cheese 290 14.3.1 Sensory impact of sodium replacement 291 14.3.2 Sensory impact of fat replacement 298 14.3.3 Sensory impact of processed cheese fortification 306 14.4 Conclusions 313 References 313 15 Sensory Attributes of Fat- Rich Dairy and Ethnic Indian Products 318 Bhavbhuti M. Mehta and Suneeta Pinto 15.1 Introduction 318 15.2 Cream and cream products 319 15.2.1 Sensory attributes of creams 323 15.2.2 Sensory evaluation of creams 324 15.2.3 Flavour defects in cream 326 15.2.4 Common body and texture defects in cream 328 15.3 Butter 329 15.3.1 Sensory attributes of butter 329 15.3.2 Sensory evaluation of butter 331 15.3.3 Colour defects in butter 333 15.3.4 Flavour defects in butter 334 15.3.5 Body and texture defects in butter 336 15.4 Dairy spreads 339 15.4.1 Sensory defects in dairy spreads 339 15.5 Ghee/Anhydrous milk fat/butter oil 341 15.5.1 Sensory quality of ghee and butter oil 342 15.5.2 Sensory evaluation of ghee 344 15.6 Conclusions 346 References 346 16 Sensory Applications in Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts 350 R. Andrew Wilbey 16.1 Introduction 350 16.1.1 Formulation 351 16.1.2 Ingredients 352 16.1.3 Processing 353 16.2 Sampling and presentation 356 16.3 Choice of approach to sensory testing 358 16.3.1 Quality assurance 358 16.3.2 Competitions 358 16.3.3 Research and product development 360 16.4 Characterising the sensory properties of ice cream and frozen deserts 362 16.5 Impact of formulation changes on the sensory profile of ice cream 364 16.5.1 Fat reduction 364 16.5.2 Sucrose reduction 365 16.6 Consumer preference and acceptance testing 367 References 368 Index 371