Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics

List of Contributors xvi Preface xxi 1 Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics: Opportunities, Health Benefits and Industrial Challenges 1 Parmjit Singh Panesar, Anil Kumar Anal and Rupinder Kaur 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Probiotics 2 1.2.1 Mechanism of Action 3 1.3 Prebiotics 4 1.3.1 Mechanism of Action 5 1.4 Applications of Synbiotics 5 1.4.1 Diarrhea 5 1.4.2 Lactose Intolerance 5 1.4.3 Modulation of the Immune System 6 1.4.4 Prevention of Colon Cancer 6 1.4.5 Cardiovascular Disease 7 1.4.6 Gut–brain Axis: Role of Probiotics 7 1.5 Current Outlook and Industrial Challenges 8 1.6 Conclusion 8 References 9 2 Isolation, Identification and Characterization of Beneficial Microorganisms from Traditional Fermented Foods 14 Phu-Ha Ho, Tuan-Anh Pham, Quoc-Phong Truong, Lan-Huong Nguyen, Tien-Thanh Nguyen, Hang-Thuy Dam, Chinh-Nghia Nguyen, Ha-Anh Nguyen, Quyet-Tien Phi, Hoang Anh Nguyen and Son Chu-Ky 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Fermented Food as a Source of Probiotic Microorganisms 14 2.2.1 Fermented Food and Health Benefits 14 2.2.2 Occurrence of Probiotics in Fermented Foods 16 2.2.3 Probiotic Viability in Fermented Food 20 2.3 Probiotic Isolation 22 2.3.1 Traditional Culture-dependent Approach 22 2.3.2 Culturomics Approach 26 2.4 Identification of Probiotic Microorganisms 28 2.4.1 Phenotypic Identification 28 2.4.2 Biochemical Identification 28 2.4.3 Molecular Identification 28 2.4.3.1 Specific Gene Analysis 28 2.4.3.2 Metagenomic Analysis 30 2.4.3.3 Proteomics 30 2.4.3.4 Metabolomics 30 2.5 Characterization of Probiotic Microorganisms 30 2.6 Conclusion 47 Acknowledgements 47 References 47 3 Lactic Acid Bacteria as Potential Probiotics 57 Muhammad Bilal Sadiq 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Isolation and Identification of Lactic Acid Bacteria 58 3.3 Characterization of Lactic Acid Bacteria 58 3.4 Criteria for Selection of Lactic Acid Bacteria as Potential Probiotic Candidates 59 3.4.1 Evaluation of Gastric Survival 59 3.4.2 Bile Salt Hydrolysis Activity 60 3.4.3 Adhesion to Epithelium 61 3.4.4 Hydrophobicity 61 3.4.5 Aggregation Ability 61 3.4.6 Antimicrobial Potential 61 3.4.7 Amylolytic Property 63 3.4.8 Safety Evaluation 63 3.5 Lactic Acid Bacteria as Sources of Probiotics 63 3.5.1 Fruits and Vegetables 63 3.5.2 Animal Sources 64 3.5.3 Dairy Products 64 3.6 Health Benefits and Probiotic Mechanisms of Lactic Acid Bacteria 65 3.6.1 Host Immunity 65 3.6.2 Beneficial Metabolites 65 3.6.3 Lactose Intolerance 66 3.6.4 Gastric Ulcer 66 3.6.5 Obesity and Diabetes Management 66 3.6.6 Role of Lactic Acid Bacteria Probiotics in Cancer 67 3.7 Industrial Applications of Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria 67 3.8 Challenges for Lactic Acid Bacteria as Probiotics 67 3.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 68 References 68 4 Non-Lactic Acid Bacteria as Probiotics and their Functional Roles 73 Cíntia Lacerda Ramos, Elizabethe Adriana Esteves, Nayara Martins Zille de Miranda, Lauane Gomes Moreno and Rosane Freitas Schwan 4.1 Spore-forming Bacteria 73 4.1.1 Types, Structure and Formation of Spores 74 4.1.1.1 Structure 75 4.1.1.2 Spore Formation 76 4.1.2 Sources and Probiotic Potential of Spore-forming Strains 77 4.1.3 Spore Formers as Gut Microbiota 80 4.1.4 Interaction with the Intestinal Cells 82 4.2 Propionibacteria 84 4.2.1 Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization 84 4.2.2 Probiotic Properties and Potential Mechanisms of Action 86 4.2.2.1 Immunomodulation 86 4.2.2.2 Microbiota Modulation 89 4.2.2.3 Cancer Modulation 89 4.3 Conclusion and Future Trends 90 References 91 5 Yeasts as Probiotics and their Functional Roles 103 Giorgia Perpetuini, Yves Waché and Rosanna Tofalo 5.1 Yeasts: General Considerations and Taxonomy 103 5.2 Saccharomyces boulardii 105 5.3 Mechanism of Action of Yeast Probiotics 107 5.4 Health Benefits of Yeast Probiotics 109 5.4.1 Probiotic Effects 110 5.4.2 Nutritional Effects 111 5.5 Other Yeast Strains with Probiotic Potential 112 5.6 Encapsulation 113 5.7 Conclusion and Future Challenges 114 References 115 6 Determination and Safety Aspects of Probiotic Cultures 122 Falguni Patra and Raj Kumar Duary 6.1 Introduction 122 6.2 Assessments of Probiotics in the Gut 123 6.2.1 Direct Method 123 6.2.2 Indirect Method 125 6.3 Dosage for Probiotic Effect 126 6.4 Pathogenicity and Inefficiency of Probiotic Culture 126 6.4.1 Pathogenicity of Probiotics 126 6.4.2 Inefficiency of Probiotics 129 6.5 Safety Assessment of Probiotic Cultures 130 6.5.1 Current Proposal on Probiotic Safety 131 6.5.2 Identification of Individual Strains 134 6.5.3 In vitro studies 135 6.5.4 Animal Studies 138 6.5.5 Human Clinical Studies 140 6.5.6 Antibiotic Resistance – the Probability of Transfer of Resistance 145 6.5.7 Post-marketing Surveillance – Genotoxic Studies, Toxin and Virulence Factors 148 6.6 Conclusion 150 References 150 7 Probiotics in Biodegradation of Microbial Toxins: Principles and Mechanisms 161 Ali Akbar, Muhammad Iftikhar Khan and Ghulam Ishaq Khan 7.1 Microbial Toxins 161 7.1.1 Health Benefits 162 7.1.2 Mycotoxins and Probiotics 162 7.2 Dual Interaction between Probiotics and Microbial Toxins 164 7.2.1 Clinical Trials 165 7.2.2 Types of Microbial Adsorbents for Mycotoxin Adsorption 165 7.2.2.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria 165 7.3 Principles and Mechanisms Involved 166 7.3.1 Control of Mycotoxins by Yeast 167 7.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects 168 Acknowledgement 168 References 168 8 Potential of Probiotics as Alternative Sources for Antibiotics in Food Production Systems 172 Sarina Pradhan Thapa, Sushil Koirala and Anil Kumar Anal 8.1 Introduction 172 8.2 Use of Antibiotics in the Food System 173 8.3 Classification and Mechanism of Use of Antibiotics 174 8.4 Mechanism of Probiotic Action 175 8.5 Probiotic Approach to Antibiotic Resistance 178 8.6 Probiotics as Alternative Sources for Antibiotics: What Is Known So Far 178 8.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects 180 References 180 9 Probiotic Cereal-based Food and Beverages, their Production and Health Benefits 186 Sujitta Raungrusmee, Simmi Ranjan Kumar and Anil Kumar Anal 9.1 Introduction 186 9.2 Probiotics in Cereal-based Food and Beverages 187 9.3 General Information about Probiotics 188 9.4 Mechanism/Pathway for Probiotics in Cereal-based Food and Beverages 189 9.5 Types of Probiotic in Cereal-based Food and Beverages 191 9.6 Traditional and Commercial Probiotic Cereal-based Foods and Beverages 191 9.6.1 Borde 191 9.6.2 Boza 197 9.6.3 Burukutu 197 9.6.4 Bushera 197 9.6.5 Chicha de jora 197 9.6.6 Gowe 198 9.6.7 Kenky 198 9.6.8 Koko 198 9.6.9 Koozh 198 9.6.10 Kunun-zaki 198 9.6.11 Kvass 198 9.6.12 Kwete 199 9.6.13 Mageu 199 9.6.14 Majewu 199 9.6.15 Obiolo 199 9.6.16 Ogi 199 9.6.17 Pito 200 9.6.18 Pozol 200 9.6.19 Sobia 200 9.6.20 Togwa 201 9.6.21 Uji 201 9.6.22 Yosa 201 9.6.23 Commercially Available Cereal-based Functional Foods 201 9.7 Health Benefits 203 9.8 Conclusion 209 References 209 10 Microencapsulation of Probiotics and its Potential Industrial Applications 213 Suwan Panjanapongchai, Chaichawin Chavapradit and Anil Kumar Anal 10.1 Introduction 213 10.2 Why We Need Microencapsulation 214 10.3 Encapsulation Techniques 215 10.3.1 Emulsion Technique 215 10.3.2 Extrusion Technique 216 10.3.3 Coacervation Technique 217 10.3.4 Spray Drying 218 10.3.5 Ultrasonic Vacuum Spray Dryer 219 10.3.6 Freeze Drying 219 10.3.7 Spray Freeze Drying 219 10.3.8 Spray Chilling 220 10.3.9 Fluid Bed Coating 220 10.3.10 Electrospraying and Electrospinning 221 10.3.11 Impinging Aerosol Technology 222 10.3.12 Hybridization method 222 10.4 Application of Probiotics in Food Matrices 223 10.4.1 Dairy Products 223 10.4.1.1 Yoghurt 223 10.4.1.2 Cheese 225 10.4.1.3 Desserts 225 10.4.2 Non-dairy Products 226 10.4.2.1 Beverages 226 10.4.2.2 Meat Products 226 10.4.2.3 Bakery Products 227 References 227 11 Prebiotics and their Role in Functional Food Product Development 233 Divyani Panwar, Parmjit Singh Panesar and Anuradha Saini 11.1 Introduction 233 11.2 Sources of Prebiotics: Classification and Characteristics 235 11.2.1 Characteristics of Prebiotics 235 11.2.2 Classification of Prebiotics and their Sources 235 11.2.2.1 Galactooligosaccharides 238 11.2.2.2 Fructooligosaccharides 238 11.2.2.3 Xylooligosaccharides 239 11.2.2.4 Lactulose 239 11.2.2.5 Lactosucrose 240 11.2.2.6 Inulin 240 11.2.2.7 Isomaltosoligosaccharides 240 11.3 New and Tailored Prebiotics 241 11.3.1 Human Milk Oligosaccharides 241 11.3.2 Resistant Starch 242 11.3.3 Polyphenols 242 11.3.4 Soybean Oligosaccharides 243 11.3.5 Lactitol 243 11.3.6 Microbial Exopolysaccharides 243 11.3.7 Seaweed Polsaccharides 244 11.4 Production Methods of Prebiotics 244 11.4.1 Galactooligosaccharides 245 11.4.2 Fructooligosaccharides 247 11.4.3 Xylooligosaccharides 247 11.4.4 Lactulose 248 11.5 Mechanism of Action 248 11.6 Health Benefits of Prebiotics 249 11.6.1 Acute Gastroenteritis 249 11.6.2 Reduction in Constipation 250 11.6.3 Reduced Risk of Colon Cancer 254 11.6.4 Obesity 254 11.6.5 Diabetes 255 11.6.6 Mineral Absorption 255 11.6.7 Lipid Metabolism 255 11.7 Safety Aspects of Prebiotics 256 11.8 Global Status of Prebiotics 256 11.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects 258 References 259 12 Galactooligosaccharides as Potential Prebiotics 272 Rupinder Kaur and Parmjit Singh Panesar 12.1 Introduction 272 12.2 Galactooligosaccharides 273 12.3 Technologies for Synthesis of Galactooligosaccharides 274 12.3.1 Chemical Technique for Production of GOS 274 12.3.2 Enzymatic Production of GOS 275 12.3.2.1 Glycosyltransferases 276 12.3.2.2 Glycosidases 276 12.4 Biotechnological Strategies for Biotransformation of GOS 277 12.4.1 Factors Affecting GOS Production 279 12.4.2 Production of GOS using Whole Cells 281 12.4.3 Production of GOS using Free Enzyme 286 12.4.4 Production of GOS using Immobilized Enzyme 286 12.4.5 Improvement in GOS Production 287 12.5 Global Status of GOS 288 12.6 Applications of GOS as Prebiotics 290 12.6.1 Stimulation of Health-promoting Bacteria 292 12.6.2 Modulation of Immune System 292 12.6.3 Enhancement of Mineral Absorption 293 12.6.4 Reduction in the Risk of Colon Cancer 294 12.6.5 Inflammatory Bowel Disease 295 12.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects 295 References 296 13 Fructooligosaccharides as Prebiotics, their Metabolism, and Health Benefits 307 Orlando de la Rosa, Adriana C. Flores-Gallegos, Juan A. Ascacio-Valdés, Leonardo Sepúlveda, Julio C. Montáñez and Cristóbal N. Aguilar 13.1 Introduction 307 13.2 Chemical Structure and Sources 307 13.3 Prebiotic Concept 308 13.4 Health-promoting Properties 310 13.4.1 Prebiotic Activity 310 13.4.2 Influence of Gut Microbiome 310 13.4.3 Prevention against Colon Cancer and Immunomodulation 313 13.4.4 Impact on Obesity 315 13.4.5 Effects on Serum Lipid and Cholesterol Concentrations 315 13.4.6 Improving Mineral Adsorption 316 13.5 FOS Production 316 13.5.1 FOS Formation Kinetics 318 13.5.2 Biotechnological Production of FOS 320 13.5.3 Enzymatic Synthesis 321 13.5.4 Whole Cell/One-step Fermentation 322 13.5.5 Agro-industrial Residues and Bioresources Employed for FOS Production 323 13.6 FOS Purification 323 13.6.1 Nanofiltration 323 13.6.2 Activated Charcoal 323 13.6.3 Microbial Treatments 324 13.7 New Developments in Food 325 13.8 Conclusion 325 Acknowledgements 326 References 326 14 Lactulose: Production and Potential Applications 338 Shweta Kumari, Parmjit Singh Panesar, Divyani Panwar and Gisha Singla 14.1 Introduction 338 14.2 Structure and Properties 338 14.3 Lactulose Production 340 14.3.1 Chemical Methods 341 14.3.2 Biotechnological Methods 345 14.3.2.1 Enzymatic Methods 345 14.3.2.2 Whole Cell Biocatalysts for Lactulose Production 348 14.3.3 Electro-activation Method 349 14.4 Techniques for the Analysis of Lactulose 349 14.5 Applications of Lactulose 350 14.5.1 Food Sectors 351 14.5.1.1 Lactulose as a Bifidus Factor 351 14.5.1.2 Lactulose as a Functional Additive 351 14.5.2 Health Sectors 351 14.5.2.1 Salmonella Carriers 351 14.5.2.2 Constipation and Hepatic Encephalopathy 352 14.5.2.3 Anti-endotoxin Effects 352 14.5.2.4 Colon Carcinogenesis 352 14.5.2.5 Inflammatory Bowel Disease 352 14.5.2.6 Tumor Prevention and Immunology 352 14.5.2.7 Blood Glucose and Insulin 353 14.5.2.8 Diagnostic Applications 353 14.6 Future Developments 353 14.7 Conclusion 353 References 354 15 Isomaltooligosaccharides as Prebiotics and their Health Benefits 361 Waraporn Sorndech 15.1 Isomaltooligosaccharide Structure, Properties and Market Trends 361 15.1.1 IMO: Global Patent Trend 364 15.2 Production 365 15.2.1 Enzymatic Production 365 15.2.1.1 Enzymatic Technologies for Formation of Various IMO Structures 366 15.2.1.2 Production Strategies 368 15.3 Technological Developments 368 15.3.1 Microbial Fermentation and Enzyme Genetic Engineering 368 15.3.2 Enzyme Immobilization 369 15.3.3 Enzyme Cocktails 369 15.3.4 Glucose, Fructose and Linear Oligosaccharide Elimination 369 15.4 Health Benefits of IMO 370 15.5 Conclusion 372 References 372 16 Starch and its Derivatives as Potential Source of Prebiotics 378 Yudi Pranoto 16.1 Introduction 378 16.2 Starch Digestion 379 16.3 Starch as a Probiotic Food Source 381 16.4 Resistant Starch as a Novel Prebiotic 382 16.5 Health Benefits 389 16.5.1 Hypoglycemic Effects 391 16.5.2 Hypocholesterolemic Effects 391 16.5.3 Prevention of Colon Cancer 392 16.5.4 Prebiotic Effect 393 16.5.5 Preventing Obesity 393 16.5.6 Reduction of Gallstone Formation 394 16.5.7 Mineral Absorption 395 16.6 Future Applications 395 16.6.1 Cheese 397 16.6.2 Pasta Products 398 16.6.3 Battered Fried Products 398 16.6.4 Bakery Products 398 16.6.5 Baked Goods 399 16.6.6 Microencapsulation of Probiotics 399 16.7 Production of RS-rich Ingredients 401 16.8 Conclusion 403 References 404 17 Gut Microbiome as Potential Source for Prevention of Metabolic-Related Diseases 407 Nuntarat Boonlao, Krisha Pant and Anil Kumar Anal 17.1 Introduction 407 17.2 Gut Microbiome and Host Interaction 408 17.2.1 Microbial Composition and Colonization 408 17.2.2 Non-bacterial Growth in the Intestine 409 17.2.3 Next Generation Probiotics 409 17.2.4 Host Cell and Microbes – Symbiotic Relationship 410 17.3 Gut Microbes and Diet Interaction 410 17.3.1 Carbohydrate 413 17.3.2 Proteins 413 17.3.3 Complex Carbohydrate/Fibers 413 17.3.4 Fat 414 17.3.5 Probiotics 414 17.3.6 Phenolic Compounds 414 17.4 Gut Microbiome and Metabolism Regulation 415 17.4.1 Gut Microbiome and Brain 415 17.4.1.1 Neural Pathways 415 17.4.1.2 Metabolites 416 17.4.2 Gut Microbiome and Immune System 416 17.4.3 Gut and Regulation of Metabolism 416 17.4.4 Gut Microbiome and COVID-19 417 17.5 Role of Gut Microbiome on Metabolic Diseases 417 17.5.1 Gut Barrier and Inflammation 417 17.5.2 Microbial Metabolites 419 17.5.2.1 Bile Acid 419 17.5.2.2 Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) 420 17.6 Gut Microbiome and Metabolic Diseases 421 17.6.1 Obesity 421 17.6.2 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus 422 17.7 Modulation of Gut Microbiome as Target for Prevention of Metabolic Diseases 423 17.7.1 Role of Dietary Intervention 423 17.7.2 Role of Probiotics and Prebiotics 424 17.8 Possible Mechanisms of Gut Microbiome in Prevention of Metabolic Diseases 425 17.8.1 Roles of Short Chain Fatty Acids 425 17.8.2 Role of Bile Salt Hydrolase 426 17.8.3 Role on Intestinal Barrier Function 427 17.9 Conclusion and Future Perspective 427 References 427 18 Overall Safety Considerations and Regulatory Oversight for Probiotics-based Foods and Beverages 441 Sushil Koirala, Sarina Pradhan Thapa and Anil Kumar Anal 18.1 Introduction 441 18.2 Safety Considerations 443 18.2.1 Non-pathogenicity 443 18.2.2 Virulome Factors 445 18.2.3 Absence of Antibiotic Resistance 445 18.3 Regulatory Framework and Labeling Claims Associated with Probiotic-based Foods and Beverages 446 18.3.1 Key Market Insights 448 18.3.2 Regional and Country Analysis 449 18.3.2.1 USA 449 18.3.2.2 Europe 450 18.3.2.3 Japan 452 18.3.2.4 China 453 18.3.2.5 Brazil 453 18.3.2.6 Mexico 454 18.3.2.7 India 454 18.3.2.8 Thailand 454 18.3.2.9 Malaysia 455 18.3.2.10 Singapore 455 18.4 Conclusion and Future Expectations 456 References 456 Index 462