Microconstituents in the Environment

Preface xix List of Contributors xxi About the Editors xxix Part I Fundamental Ideas Regarding Microconstituents in the Environment 1 1 Introduction to Microconstituents 3 Manaswini Behera, Prangya Ranjan Rout, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, Chih-Ming Kao, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Classification of Microconstituents 5 1.2.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 5 1.2.2 Pesticides 8 1.2.3 Disinfection By-Products 8 1.2.4 Industrial Chemicals 9 1.2.5 Algal Toxins 9 1.3 Source of Microconstituents 10 1.3.1 Source of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) in the Environment 10 1.3.2 Source of Pesticides in the Environment 11 1.3.3 Source of Disinfection By-Products in the Environment 13 1.3.4 Source of Industrial Chemicals in the Environment 14 1.3.5 Source of Algal Toxins in the Environment 16 1.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Microconstituents 17 1.5 Impact on Human Society and Ecosystem 18 1.5.1 Impact on Human Health 21 1.5.2 Impact on the Ecosystem 21 1.6 The Structure of the Book 24 1.7 Conclusions 26 2 Occurrence 37 Prangya Ranjan Rout, Manaswini Behera, Puspendu Bhunia, Tian C. Zhang, and Rao Y. Surampalli 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Goals of Occurrence Survey 40 2.3 Environmental Occurrence of Microconstituents 40 2.3.1 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Groundwater 41 2.3.2 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Surface Water 43 2.3.3 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Marine Water 44 2.3.4 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Drinking Water 45 2.3.5 Occurrence of Microconstituents in WWTPs Effluent and Sludge 46 2.3.6 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Soil 47 2.3.7 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Foods and Vegetables 48 2.4 Challenges and Future Prospective in Occurrence Survey 49 2.5 Conclusions 49 3 Sampling, Characterization, and Monitoring 55 Mansi Achhoda, Nirmalya Halder, Lavanya Adagadda, Sanjoy Gorai, Meena Kumari Sharma, Naresh Kumar Sahoo, Sasmita Chand, and Prangya Ranjan Rout 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Sampling Protocols of Different Microconstituents 56 3.2.1 Sample Preparation 56 3.2.1.1 Traditional Sampling Techniques 57 3.2.1.2 Automatic Samplers and Pumps 58 3.2.1.3 Pore-Water Sampling 58 3.2.2 Extraction of Microconstituents 58 3.2.3 Passive Sampling 60 3.2.4 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 62 3.2.5 Internal vs. External Quality Control 62 3.3 Quantification and Analysis of Microconstituents 63 3.3.1 Detection Techniques 63 3.3.2 UV-Visible Optical Methods 64 3.3.3 NMR Spectroscopy 65 3.3.4 Chromatographic Methods Tandem Mass Spectrometry 67 3.3.5 Biological Assay for Detection 67 3.3.6 Sensors and Biosensors for Detection 72 3.4 Source Tracking Techniques 73 3.4.1 Performance Criteria 73 3.4.2 Tracer Selection 73 3.4.3 Different Source Tracking Methods 75 3.4.4 Statistical Approaches in Source Tracking Modeling 76 3.4.4.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 76 3.4.4.2 Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) 76 3.5 Remote Sensing and GIS Applications for Monitoring 77 3.5.1 Basic Concepts and Principles 77 3.5.2 Measurement and Estimation Techniques 77 3.5.3 Applications for Microconstituents Monitoring 78 3.6 Conclusions 79 4 Toxicity Assessment of Microconstituents in the Environment 89 Nagireddi Jagadeesh, Baranidharan Sundaram, and Brajesh Kumar Dubey 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Microplastics in the Environment 91 4.3 Microplastics Pathways, Fate, and Behavior in the Environment 92 4.4 Concentration of Microplastics in the Environment 94 4.5 Influence of Microplastics on Microorganisms 94 4.6 Toxicity Mechanisms 95 4.6.1 Effect on Aquatic Ecosystem 95 4.6.2 Effect on Human Health 96 4.6.3 Toxicity Testing 96 4.6.3.1 Test Without PE MPs 97 4.6.3.2 With Microbeads 97 4.6.3.3 Analysis Limitations 98 4.7 Risk Assessment 98 4.8 Future Challenges in Quantification of the Environment 99 4.9 Conclusions 99 Part II The Fate and Transportation of Microconstituents 107 5 Mathematical Transport System of Microconstituents 109 Dwarikanath Ratha, Richa Babbar, K.S. Hariprasad, C.S.P. Ojha, Manoj Baranwal, Prangya Ranjan Rout, and Aditya Parihar 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Need for Mathematical Models 111 5.3 Fundamentals of Pollutant Transport Modeling 112 5.4 Development of Numerical Model 117 5.4.1 Advective Transport 117 5.4.2 Dispersive Transport 120 5.4.3 Discretization in Space and Time 120 5.5 Application of Models 123 5.6 Softwares for Pollutant Transport 126 5.6.1 Hydrus Model for Pollution Transport 126 5.7 Mathematical and Computational Limitation 126 5.8 Conclusions 129 6 Groundwater Contamination by Microconstituents 133 Jiun-Hau Ou, Ku-Fan Chen, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Chih-Ming Kao 6.1 Introduction 133 6.2 Major Microconstituents in Groundwater 134 6.3 Mechanisms for Groundwater Contamination By Microconstituents 135 6.4 Modeling Transport of Microconstituents 136 6.5 Limitations 139 6.6 Concluding Remarks 139 7 Microconstituents in Surface Water 143 Po-Jung Huang, Fang-Yu Liang, Thakshila Nadeeshani Dharmapriya, and Chih-Ming Kao 7.1 Introduction 143 7.2 Major Microconstituents in Surface Water 143 7.2.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) 143 7.2.2 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals 146 7.2.3 Industrial Chemicals 149 7.2.4 Pesticides 150 7.3 Water Cycles, Sources, and Pathways of Microconstituents, and the Applicability of Mathematical Models 152 7.3.1 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) 152 7.3.2 Pesticides in Surface Water 153 7.3.3 The Applicability of Mathematical Models 155 7.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Mathematical Tools 155 7.4 Fate and Transport of Microconstituents in Aquatic Environments 157 7.4.1 Adsorption of Microconstituents 157 7.4.2 Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Caffeine 158 7.4.3 Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Steroidal Estrogen 158 7.5 Modeling of Microconstituents in Aquatic Environments 161 7.5.1 BASINS System Overview 162 7.5.2 HSPF Model Evaluation (Hydrological Simulation Program Fortran Model) 164 7.5.3 Fundamental Mechanisms of SWAT Pesticide Modeling 166 7.5.3.1 SWAT Model Description 166 7.5.3.2 SWAT Model Set-Up 167 7.5.4 Model Sensitivity Analysis, Calibration, and Validation 168 7.5.4.1 Coefficient of Determination, R 2 168 7.5.4.2 Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency Coefficient, NSE 169 7.5.5 Basin Level Modeling (Pesticide Transport) 170 7.6 Conclusions 172 8 Fate and Transport of Microconstituents in Wastewater Treatment Plants 181 Zong-Han Yang, Po-Jung Huang, Ku-Fan Chen, and Chih-Ming Kao 8.1 Introduction 181 8.1.1 The Sources of Microconstituents in Wastewater Treatment Plants 181 8.1.2 The Behavior of Microconstituents 183 8.2 The Fate of Microconstituents in WWTPs 183 8.2.1 Traditional Wastewater Treatment Process 183 8.2.2 The Fate of MCs in WWTPs 185 8.2.3 Biodegradation of Microconstituents 186 8.2.4 Sorption Onto Sludge Solids in WWTPs 188 8.3 Treatment Methods for Microconstituents Removal 189 8.3.1 Activated Sludge Process (ASP) 189 8.3.2 Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) 190 8.3.3 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR) 191 8.3.4 Trickling Filter 191 8.4 Critical Parameters in WWTP Operation for MCs 191 8.4.1 ASP Operation 191 8.4.2 MBR Operation 193 8.4.3 MBBR Operation 193 8.4.4 TF Operation 194 8.5 Conclusions 194 9 Various Perspectives on Occurrence, Sources, Measurement Techniques, Transport, and Insights Into Future Scope for Research of Atmospheric Microplastics 203 Sailesh N. Behera, Mudit Yadav, Vishnu Kumar, and Prangya Ranjan Rout 9.1 Introduction 203 9.2 Classification and Properties of Microplastics 206 9.2.1 Classification of Atmospheric Microplastics 206 9.2.2 Characteristics of Atmospheric Microplastics 206 9.2.3 Qualitative Assessment to Identify Microplastics 208 9.3 Sources of Atmospheric Microplastics 209 9.4 Measurement of Atmospheric Microplastics 210 9.5 Occurrence and Ambient Concentration of Microplastics 211 9.6 Factors Affecting Pollutant Concentration 213 9.7 Transport of Atmospheric Microplastics 214 9.8 Modeling Techniques in Prediction of Fate in the Atmosphere 215 9.9 Control Technologies in Contaminant Treatment 216 9.10 Challenges in Future Climate Conditions 217 9.11 Future Scope of Research 218 9.12 Conclusions 219 10 Modeling Microconstituents Based on Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques 227 Anoop Kumar Shukla, Satyavati Shukla, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, Ying-Liang Yu, and Chih-Ming Kao 10.1 Basic Components of Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Models 227 10.1.1 Source of Light or Energy 228 10.1.2 Radiation and the Atmosphere 229 10.1.3 Interaction With the Subject Target 229 10.1.4 Sensing Systems 229 10.1.5 Data Collection 229 10.1.6 Interpretation and Analysis 229 10.2 Coupling GIS With 3D Model Analysis and Visualization 230 10.2.1 Modeling and Simulation Approaches 231 10.2.1.1 Deterministic Models 231 10.2.1.2 Stochastic Models 231 10.2.1.3 Rule-Based Models 232 10.2.1.4 Multi-Agent Simulation of Complex Systems 232 10.2.2 GIS Implementation 232 10.2.2.1 Full Integration–Embedded Coupling 232 10.2.2.2 Integration Under a Common Interface–Tight Coupling 233 10.2.2.3 Loose Coupling 233 10.2.2.4 Modeling Environment Linked to GIS 233 10.3 Emerging and Application 233 10.3.1 Multispectral Remote Sensing 233 10.3.2 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing 234 10.3.3 Geographic Information System (GIS) 234 10.3.4 Applications 234 10.3.4.1 Urban Environment Management 234 10.3.4.2 Wasteland Environment 235 10.3.4.3 Coastal and Marine Environment 236 10.4 Uncertainty in Environmental Modeling 236 10.5 Future of Remote Sensing and GIS Application in Pollutant Monitoring 237 10.5.1 Types of Satellite-Based Environmental Monitoring 239 10.5.1.1 Atmosphere Monitoring 239 10.5.1.2 Air Quality Monitoring 239 10.5.1.3 Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) 240 10.5.1.4 Hazard Monitoring 240 10.5.1.5 Marine and Phytoplankton Studies 240 10.6 Identification of Microconstituents Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques 241 10.7 Conclusions 242 Part III Various Physicochemical Treatment Techniques of Microconstituents 247 11 Process Feasibility and Sustainability of Struvite Crystallization From Wastewater Through Electrocoagulation 249 Alisha Zaffar, Nageshwari Krishnamoorthy, Chinmayee Sahoo, Sivaraman Jayaraman, and Balasubramanian Paramasivan 249 11.1 Introduction 249 11.2 Struvite Crystallization Through Electrocoagulation 251 11.2.1 Working Principle 251 11.2.2 Types of Electrocoagulation 252 11.2.2.1 Batch Electrocoagulation 252 11.2.2.2 Continuous Electrocoagulation 254 11.2.2.3 Advantages of Electrocoagulation Over Other Methods for Struvite Precipitation 256 11.3 Influential Parameters Affecting Struvite Crystallization 257 11.3.1 pH of the Medium 257 11.3.2 Magnesium Source and Mg 2+ : PO 3– 4 Molar Ratio 258 11.3.3 Current Density 259 11.3.4 Voltage and Current Efficiency 260 11.3.5 Electrode Type and Interelectrode Distance 261 11.3.6 Stirring Speed, Reaction Time, and Seeding 262 11.3.7 Presence of Competitive Ions and Purity of Struvite Crystals 263 11.4 Energy, Economy, and Environmental Contribution of Struvite Precipitation by Electrocoagulation 264 11.5 Summary and Future Perspectives 266 12 Adsorption of Microconstituents 273 Challa Mallikarjuna, Rajat Pundlik, Rajesh Roshan Dash, and Puspendu Bhunia 12.1 Introduction 273 12.2 Adsorption Mechanism 274 12.3 Adsorption Isotherms and Kinetics 276 12.3.1 Adsorption Isotherms 276 12.3.1.1 Langmuir Isotherm 276 12.3.1.2 Freundlich Isotherm 276 12.3.1.3 Dubinin–Radushkevich Isotherm 277 12.3.1.4 Redlich–Peterson Isotherm 277 12.3.1.5 Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) Isotherm 278 12.3.2 Adsorption Kinetics 278 12.3.2.1 Pseudo-First-Order Equation 278 12.3.2.2 Pseudo-Second-Order Equation 279 12.3.2.3 Elovich Model 279 12.3.2.4 Intraparticle Diffusion Model 279 12.4 Factors Affecting Adsorption Processes 280 12.4.1 Surface Area 280 12.4.2 Contact Time 280 12.4.3 Nature and Initial Concentration of Adsorbate 280 12.4.4 pH 280 12.4.5 Nature and Dose of Adsorbent 281 12.4.6 Interfering Substance 281 12.5 Multi-Component Preference Analysis 281 12.6 Conventional and Emerging Adsorbents 282 12.6.1 Conventional Adsorbents 282 12.6.2 Commercial Activated Carbons 282 12.6.3 Inorganic Material 284 12.6.4 Ion-Exchange Resins 285 12.6.5 Emerging/Non-Conventional Adsorbents 285 12.6.5.1 Natural Adsorbents 286 12.6.5.2 Agricultural Wastes 287 12.6.5.3 Industrial By-Product (Industrial Solid Wastes) 287 12.6.5.4 Solid Waste-Based Activated Carbons 288 12.6.5.5 Bio-Sorbents 288 12.6.5.6 Miscellaneous Adsorbents 289 12.7 Desirable Properties and Surface Modification of Adsorbents 290 12.7.1 Desorption/Regeneration Studies 290 12.7.2 Column Studies 291 12.7.2.1 Surface Modification of Adsorbents 293 12.8 Disposal Methods of Adsorbents and Concentrate 295 12.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Adsorption 296 12.9.1 Advantages 296 12.9.2 Disadvantages 297 12.10 Conclusions 297 13 Ion Exchange Process for Removal of Microconstituents From Water and Wastewater 303 Muhammad Kashif Shahid, H.N.P. Dayarathne, Bandita Mainali, Jun Wei Lim, and Younggyun Choi 13.1 Introduction 303 13.2 Properties of Different Ion Exchange Resin 304 13.3 Functionalities of Polymeric Resins 306 13.4 Ion Exchange Mechanism 310 13.5 Ion Exchange Kinetics 312 13.6 Application of Ion Exchange for Treatment of Microconstituents 313 13.7 Summary 316 14 Membrane-Based Separation Technologies for Removal of Microconstituents 321 Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Puspendu Bhunia 14.1 Introduction 321 14.2 Classification of Available MBSTs 323 14.3 Classification of Membranes and Membrane Materials and Their Properties 323 14.3.1 Classification of Membranes 323 14.3.2 Classification and Properties of Membrane Materials 329 14.3.2.1 Membrane Classification 329 14.3.2.1.1 Cellulose Derivatives 330 14.3.2.1.2 Aromatic Polyamides 330 14.3.2.1.3 Polysulphone 330 14.3.2.1.4 Polyimides 330 14.3.2.1.5 Polytetrafluoroethylene 331 14.3.2.1.6 Polycarbonates 331 14.3.2.1.7 Polypropylene 331 14.3.2.2 Cutting-Edge Membranes 331 14.4 Fundamental Principles and Hydraulics of Microconstituents Removal via Different MBSTs 332 14.4.1 Fundamental Principles 332 14.4.2 Hydraulics of Microconstituents Removal 351 14.4.2.1 Modes of Operation 352 14.4.2.2 Definitions of Some Frequently Used Terms in MBSTs 353 14.5 Application of the MBSTs for Removing Microconstituents From Aqueous Matrices 354 14.6 Membrane Fouling 355 14.6.1 Classification of Membrane Fouling 355 14.6.1.1 Particulate or Colloidal Fouling 356 14.6.1.2 Biological or Microbial Fouling 356 14.6.1.3 Scaling or Precipitation Fouling 356 14.6.1.4 Organic Fouling 356 14.6.2 Mechanisms of Membrane Fouling 356 14.6.3 Control of Membrane Fouling 357 14.7 Future Perspectives 358 14.8 Conclusions 358 15 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Microconstituents Removal in Aquatic Environments 367 Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Puspendu Bhunia 15.1 Introduction 367 15.2 Classification of AOPs 369 15.3 Fundamentals of Different AOPs 370 15.4 Fundamentals of Individual AOPs 370 15.4.1 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Ozonation Process 370 15.4.2 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by UV-Irradiation 371 15.4.3 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Photocatalysis 371 15.4.4 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Electrochemical Oxidation (EO) or Anodic Oxidation (AO) and Sonolysis 373 15.4.5 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by the Fenton Process 373 15.5 Fundamentals of Integrated AOPs 374 15.6 Fundamentals of UV-Irradiation-Based Integrated AOPs 374 15.6.1 Uv/h 2 O 2 374 15.6.2 UV Photocatalysis/Ozonation 374 15.6.3 UV/Fenton Process 375 15.6.4 UV/Persulfate (PS) or Permonosulfate (PMS) 375 15.6.5 UV/Cl 2 376 15.7 Fundamentals of Ozonation-Based Integrated AOPs 376 15.7.1 Ozonation/H 2 O 2 376 15.7.2 Ozonation/PS or PMS 376 15.8 Fundamentals of Fenton Process-Based Integrated AOPs 376 15.8.1 Heterogeneous Fenton Process 376 15.8.2 Photo-Fenton Process 377 15.8.3 Sono-Fenton Process 377 15.9 Fundamentals of Electrochemical-Based Integrated AOPs 377 15.9.1 Electro-Fenton Process 377 15.9.2 Sono-Electro-Fenton Process 378 15.9.3 Photo-Electro-Fenton Process 378 15.10 Application of Individual/Integrated AOPs for Microconstituents Removal 378 15.10.1 PPCP Removal 378 15.10.2 Pesticide Removal 389 15.10.3 Surfactant Removal 390 15.10.4 PFAS Removal 390 15.11 Future Perspectives 390 15.12 Conclusions 392 Part IV Various Physico-Chemical Treatment Techniques of Microconstituents 405 16 Aerobic Biological Treatment of Microconstituents 407 Hung-Hsiang Chen, Thi-Manh Nguyen, Ku-Fan Chen, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 16.1 Introduction 407 16.2 Aerobic Biological Systems/Processes 408 16.2.1 High-Rate Systems 408 16.2.1.1 Suspended Growth Processes 408 16.2.1.2 Attached Growth Processes 410 16.2.2 Low-Rate Systems 411 16.3 Removal of CECs By Different Aerobic/Anoxic Treatment Processes 411 16.3.1 ASPs 412 16.3.2 Removal of CECs By Different Aerobic/Anoxic Treatment Processes 412 16.3.3 MBR and Membranes Technology 413 16.3.4 ASPs and/or Trickling Filters 413 16.3.5 Lagoons and Constructed Wetlands 413 16.3.6 Mixed Technologies 414 16.4 Aerobic Biodegradation of Selected CECs 415 16.4.1 Hormones and Their Conjugates 415 16.4.2 Nanoparticles (NPs) and Nanomaterials (NMs) 417 16.4.3 Microplastics 417 16.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives 418 16.6 Conclusions 419 17 Anaerobic Biological Treatment of Microconstituents 427 Thi-Manh Nguyen, Hung-Hsiang Chen, Ku-Fan Chen, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 17.1 Introduction 427 17.2 Types of AD Reactors and Current Status of AD Technology 428 17.2.1 Suspended Growth Process 428 17.2.1.1 Anaerobic Contact Reactor (ACR) 429 17.2.1.2 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor 429 17.2.2 Attached Growth Process 430 17.2.3 AnMBRs 431 17.2.4 Current Status of AD Technology 432 17.3 Mechanisms of Pollutant Removal in AD Processes 433 17.3.1 The Hydrolysis Stage 433 17.3.2 The Acidogenesis Stage 434 17.3.3 The Acetogenesis Stage 434 17.3.4 The Methanogenesis Stage 435 17.4 AD Technology for Treatment of MCs 436 17.4.1 Key Characteristics of Selected AD Systems for MCs Removal 436 17.4.1.1 Reactor Configurations and Combinations of Different Methods 436 17.4.1.2 Removal of Different MCs and Associated Mechanisms 441 17.4.2 Biodegradation of Selected MCs in AD Processes 442 17.4.2.1 MPs 442 17.4.2.2 NMs/NPs 444 17.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives 445 17.6 Conclusions 446 18 Bio-Electrochemical Systems for Micropollutant Removal 455 Rishabh Raj, Sovik Das, Manaswini Behera, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar 18.1 The Concept of Bio-Electrochemical Systems 455 18.2 Bio-Electrochemical Systems: Materials and Configurations 457 18.2.1 Electrodes 457 18.2.2 Separators 460 18.3 Different Types of Bio-Electrochemical Systems 461 18.3.1 Microbial Fuel Cell 462 18.3.2 Microbial Electrolysis Cell 463 18.3.3 Microbial Desalination Cell 464 18.4 Performance Assessment of Bio-Electrochemical Systems 466 18.5 Pollutant Removal in Bio-Electrochemical Systems 469 18.5.1 Treatment of Different Wastewaters in Bio-Electrochemical Systems 469 18.5.2 Micropollutant Remediation 473 18.6 Scale-Up of BES 474 18.7 Challenges and Future Outlook 476 18.8 Summary 478 19 Hybrid Treatment Solutions for Removal of Micropollutant From Wastewaters 491 Monali Priyadarshini, S. M. Sathe, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar 19.1 Background of Hybrid Treatment Processes 491 19.2 Types of Hybrid Processes for Microconstituents Removal 492 19.2.1 Constructed Wetlands 493 19.2.1.1 Applications 494 19.2.1.2 Constructed Wetland Coupled With Microbial Fuel Cell 494 19.2.2 Combined Biological and Advanced Oxidation Processes 495 19.2.2.1 Activated Sludge Process Coupled With Advanced Oxidation Process 496 19.2.2.2 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor Coupled With Advanced Oxidation Process 496 19.2.2.3 Bio-Electrochemical Systems and Advanced Oxidation Processes 497 19.2.2.4 Bio-Electro Fenton-Based Advanced Oxidation Processes 499 19.2.2.5 Photo-Electrocatalyst-Based Advanced Oxidation Process 500 19.2.3 Membrane Bioreactor 501 19.2.3.1 Granular Sludge Membrane Bioreactor 502 19.2.3.2 Advanced Oxidation Process Coupled Membrane Bioreactor 502 19.2.3.3 Membrane Bioreactor Coupled With Microbial Fuel Cell 503 19.2.4 Electrocoagulation 504 19.3 Comparative Performance Evaluation of Hybrid Systems for Microconstituents Removal 506 19.4 Conclusions and Future Directions 507 Part V Aspects of Sustainability and Environmental Management 513 20 Regulatory Framework of Microconstituents 515 Wei-Han Lin, Jiun-Hau Ou, Ying-Liang Yu, Pu-Fong Liu, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Chih-Ming Kao 20.1 Introduction 515 20.2 Management and Regulatory Framework of Microconstituents 515 20.3 Regulations on Microconstituents 516 20.3.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) 516 20.3.2 Microplastics 517 20.3.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Persistent Bioaccumulated Toxics (PBTs) 519 20.3.4 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) 520 20.4 Concluding Remarks 520 21 Laboratory to Field Application of Technologies for Effective Removal of Microconstituents From Wastewaters 525 Indrajit Chakraborty, Manikanta M. Doki, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar 525 21.1 Introduction 525 21.1.1 Microconstituent Origin and Type 526 21.1.2 Refractory Nature and Corresponding Degradation Barriers of Microconstituents 527 21.2 Case Studies for Lab to Field Applications 530 21.2.1 Conventional Treatment Methods 530 21.2.2 Hybrid Treatment Methods 533 21.2.2.1 Hybrid Biochemical Processes 533 21.2.2.2 Hybrid Advanced Oxidation Processes 536 21.3 Future Outlook 540 21.4 Conclusions 540 22 Sustainability Outlook: Green Design, Consumption, and Innovative Business Model 545 Tsai Chi Kuo 22.1 Introduction 545 22.2 Sustainable/Green Supply Chain 547 22.2.1 Collaboration 547 22.2.2 System Improvements 547 22.2.3 Supplier Evaluations 548 22.2.4 Performance and Uncertainty 548 22.3 Environmental Sustainability: Innovative Design and Manufacturing 549 22.3.1 Design Improvements 549 22.3.1.1 Disassembly and Recyclability 549 22.3.1.2 Modularity Design 549 22.3.1.3 Life-Cycle Design 550 22.3.2 Green Manufacturing 550 22.3.2.1 Green Manufacturing Process and System Development 550 22.3.2.2 Recycling Technology 551 22.3.2.3 Hazard Material Control 551 22.3.2.4 Remanufacturing and Inventory Model 551 22.3.3 Summary of Environmental Sustainability 551 22.4 Economical Sustainability: Innovation Business Model 552 22.4.1 Business Model and Performance 552 22.4.2 Summary of Economic Sustainability 553 22.5 Social Sustainability 553 22.5.1 Corporate Social Responsibility 553 22.5.2 Sustainable Consumption 554 22.5.3 Brief Summary of Social Sustainability 554 22.6 Conclusions and Future Research Development 554 22.6.1 Future Research Development 555 22.6.2 Industry 4.0 in Sustainable Life 555 22.6.3 Conclusions 555 List of Abbreviations 565 Index 577