Introductory Linguistics for Speech and Language Therapy Practice

1 Introduction 1 1.0 Why do speech and language therapy students need to study linguistics? 1 1.1 Why do speech and language therapy students need this book? 2 1.2 Aims of this book, and what this book will not aim to do 3 1.3 Some preliminaries 4 1.3.1 Levels of description in language 5 1.4 How this book is organised 8 1.5 Exercises 9 Exercises using clinical assessments 9 Further reading 9 2 Words and Non-words 10 2.0 Introduction 10 2.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 11 2.2 Learning objectives 12 2.3 Words, word-forms and lexemes 12 2.4 Testing word processing and related abilities 14 2.5 Principles of selection of items in clinical resources 15 2.6 Words and non-words 22 Chapter summary 23 Exercises using clinical resources 24 Further reading 24 3 Word Meaning 25 3.0 Introduction 25 3.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 26 3.2 Learning objectives 26 3.3 Reference and sense 27 3.4 Lexical semantics 28 3.4.1 Lexemes, categories and concepts 28 3.4.2 Decomposition of word meaning 29 3.4.3 Basic concepts 31 3.4.4 Semantic fields 32 3.4.5 Sense relations 34 3.4.6 Lexical ambiguity 37 Chapter summary 38 Exercises using clinical resources 39 Further reading 40 4 Sentence Meaning 41 4.0 Introduction 41 4.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 41 4.2 Learning objectives 42 4.3 Sentence-level meaning 42 4.3.1 Semantic roles 44 4.3.2 Reversibility 47 4.3.3 Contradiction 49 4.3.4 Syntactic ambiguity 50 Chapter summary 51 Exercises using clinical resources 51 Further reading 52 5 Parts of Speech 53 5.0 Introduction 53 5.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 54 5.2 Learning objectives 54 5.3 Identifying parts of speech 55 5.3.1 Content words and function words 55 5.3.2 Why is it sometimes difficult to identify parts of speech in English? 55 5.3.3 Traditional, meaning-based criteria 57 5.3.4 Form-based criteria 57 5.3.5 Tests for parts of speech 61 Chapter summary 83 Exercises using clinical resources 83 Further reading 84 6 Word Structure 85 6.0 Introduction 85 6.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 86 6.2 Learning objectives 86 6.3 Words and morphemes 87 6.4 Free and bound forms 89 6.5 Allomorphs 90 6.6 Common mechanisms of word formation in English 92 6.6.1 Compounding 92 6.6.2 Affixation 94 6.7 Mean length of utterance in morphemes 104 Chapter summary 104 Exercises using clinical resources 105 Further reading 106 7 Sentence Structure 1: Phrases and Clauses 107 7.0 Introduction 107 7.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 108 7.2 Learning objectives 109 7.3 Syntax, morphology and the lexicon 109 7.4 Phrases 110 7.4.1 Criteria for phrases 111 7.4.2 Types of phrases 112 7.4.3 Heads, modifiers and phrase types 113 7.4.4 Phrases: noun phrases 114 7.4.5 Phrases: prepositional phrases 115 7.4.6 Phrases: adjective phrases 116 7.4.7 Phrases: adverb phrases 116 7.4.8 Phrases: verb phrases 117 7.5 Clauses 118 7.5.1 Elements of the clause 119 7.5.2 Elements of the clause: verb 121 7.5.3 Elements of the clause: subject 121 7.5.4 Elements of the clause: object 123 7.5.5 Elements of the clause: complement 127 7.5.6 Elements of the clause: adverbial 129 7.5.7 Phrases and grammatical functions 131 7.5.8 Notation for clauses 131 Chapter summary 133 Exercises using clinical resources 133 Further reading 134 8 Sentence Structure 2: Constructions and Main Clauses 135 8.0 Introduction 135 8.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 136 8.2 Learning objectives 137 8.3 Declarative, interrogative and imperative clauses 137 8.3.1 Basic constructions: declarative clauses 138 8.3.2 Imperative clauses 139 8.3.3 Interrogative clauses: yes–no interrogatives 140 8.3.4 Interrogative clauses: wh interrogatives 141 8.3.5 Interrogative clauses: tag questions 141 8.4 The active, passive and middle constructions 143 8.4.1 Active clauses/constructions 143 8.4.2 Passive clauses/constructions 144 8.4.3 Middle clauses/constructions 145 8.5 Negation 147 Chapter summary 151 Exercises using clinical resources 152 Further reading 152 9 Sentence Structure 3: Subordinate Clauses and Sentences 153 9.0 Introduction 153 9.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 153 9.2 Learning objectives 154 9.3 Main and subordinate clauses 154 9.4 Recognising different types of subordinate clause 155 9.4.1 Relative clauses 155 9.4.2 Adverbial clauses 156 9.4.3 Complement clauses 157 9.5 Clauses that modify nouns 159 9.6 Optional extra on relative clauses 161 9.7 Sentences 165 Chapter summary 166 Exercises using clinical resources 168 Further reading 168 10 Sentence Structure 4: Non-finite Clauses 169 10.0 Introduction 169 10.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 170 10.2 Learning outcomes 170 10.3 Infinitives and (Type 1) gerunds 170 10.3.1 Understood subject and control 172 10.4 Type 2 gerunds 173 10.5 Bare-verb clauses 175 10.6 Free participle clauses 175 10.7 Reduced clauses 176 Chapter summary 179 Exercises using clinical resources 180 Further reading 180 11 Language in Use 1: Deixis and Reference 181 11.0 Introduction 181 11.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 181 11.2 Learning objectives 182 11.3 Reference and deixis 182 11.3.1 Deixis: introduction 183 11.3.2 Deixis: personal pronouns 184 11.3.3 Deixis: demonstratives 186 11.3.4 Deixis: spatial expressions 188 11.3.5 Deixis: verbs of movement 189 11.3.6 Deixis: temporal expressions 191 11.3.7 Deixis: tense 193 11.3.8 Deixis: extended uses 194 11.4 Reference 197 Chapter summary 202 Exercises using clinical resources 202 Further reading 203 12 Language in Use 2: Frames and Scripts, Metaphor and Irony, Implicature, Explicature 204 12.0 Introduction 204 12.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 205 12.2 Learning outcomes 206 12.3 Frames and scripts 206 12.4 Metaphor, irony, humour 209 12.5 Implicature 211 12.6 Explicature 216 12.7 Presupposition 219 Chapter summary 221 Exercises using clinical resources 222 Further reading 222 13 Language in Use 3: Speech Acts, Conversation 223 13.0 Introduction 223 13.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 224 13.2 Learning objectives 224 13.3 Frames, scripts and norms 224 13.4 Speech acts 226 13.5 Conversation: scripts and routines 233 13.5.1 Turn taking 233 13.5.2 Adjacency pairs 234 13.5.3 Expansions 235 13.5.4 Preference organisation 236 13.5.5 Opening a conversation 237 13.5.6 Politeness 238 13.5.7 Topic management 238 13.5.8 Repair 241 13.6 Paralinguistic signals 244 Chapter summary 246 Exercises using clinical resources 246 Further reading 247 14 Narrative 1: Introduction – Coherence and Cohesion 248 14.0 Introduction 248 14.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 249 14.2 Learning objectives 249 14.3 Tasks for speakers and writers 250 14.4 Concepts for analysing narrative 250 14.5 Spoken text 252 14.6 Coherence and cohesion 254 14.6.1 Coherence 254 14.6.2 Cohesion 255 Chapter summary 259 Exercises using clinical resources 260 Further reading 260 15 Narrative 2: Given and New, Theme, Focus 261 15.0 Introduction 261 15.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 261 15.2 Learning objectives 262 15.3 Given and new information 262 15.4 Theme 264 15.5 Focus 270 15.5.1 Focus: tonic accent 270 15.5.2 Focus: IT clefts 272 15.5.3 Focus: WH clefts 274 15.5.4 Focus: TH clefts 275 15.6 Conclusion 276 Chapter summary 277 Exercises using clinical resources 278 Further reading 278 16 Narrative 3: Syntax and the Organisation of Text 279 16.0 Introduction 279 16.1 Why do SLTs need this knowledge? 279 16.2 Learning objectives 280 16.3 Tense and aspect in narrative 280 16.3.1 Tense and aspect: reminder of the main points 280 16.3.2 Simple Past versus Progressive in narrative 281 16.3.3 Perfect 281 16.3.4 Tense and aspect: problems of usage 282 16.4 Analysing clinical test narratives 283 16.4.1 The runaway tractor story 283 16.4.2 The safari park story 286 16.4.3 The sports day story 286 16.4.4 The squirrel story 287 16.5 Some loose ends 288 16.5.1 End weight 288 16.5.2 End weight: extraposition 288 16.5.3 Passives in narrative text 290 16.5.4 Non-finite clauses 292 Chapter summary 294 Exercises using clinical resources 294 17 Conclusion 297 Appendix A: Islands of Reliability for Determining Parts of Speech 299 Appendix B: SLT Resources Referenced in This Text 302 Answers to Exercises 306 Annotated Bibliography 343 Index 345