Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry

1 An Introduction to Chemistry 1 1.1 The Nature of Chemistry 2 1.2 A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving 3 1.3 The Particulate Nature of Matter 5 1.4 Classifying Matter 7 Review 9 Review Questions 10 Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises 11 Answers to Practice Exercises 12 2 Standards for Measurement 13 2.1 Scientific Notation 14 2.2 Measurement and Uncertainty 15 2.3 Significant Figures 16 2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 18 2.5 The Metric System 21 2.6 Dimensional Analysis: A Problem-Solving Method 27 2.7 Measurement of Temperature 30 Chemistry in action Setting Standards 32 2.8 Density 34        Review 37 Review Questions 38 Paired Exercises 39 Additional Exercises 41 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 43 3 Elements and Compounds 44 3.1 Elements 45 3.2 Introduction to the Periodic Table 49 3.3 Compounds and Formulas 52 Review 57 Review Questions 58 Paired Exercises 59 Additional Exercises 60 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 61 4 Properties of Matter 62 4.1 Properties of Substances 63 4.2 Physical and Chemical Changes 65 4.3 Learning to Solve Problems 68 4.4 Energy 68 4.5 Heat: Quantitative Measurement 70 4.6 Energy in the Real World 72 Review 74 Review Questions 75 Paired Exercises 76 Additional Exercises 77 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 78 Putting It Together Chapters 1–4 review 79 5 Early Atomic Theory and Structure 82 5.1 Dalton’s Model of the Atom 83 5.2 Electric Charge 84 5.3 Subatomic Parts of the Atom 85 5.4 The Nuclear Atom 87 5.5 Isotopes of the Elements 89 5.6 Atomic Mass 92 Review 93 Review Questions 94 Paired Exercises 95 Additional Exercises 96 Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 97 6 Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds 98 6.1 Common and Systematic Names 99 6.2 Elements and Ions 100 6.3 Writing Formulas from Names of Ionic Compounds 103 6.4 Naming Binary Compounds 105 6.5 Naming Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 109 6.6 Acids 111 Review 114 Review Questions 115 Paired Exercises 116 Additional Exercises 117 Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 118 Putting It Together Chapters 5–6 review 119 7 Quantitative Composition of Compounds 121 7.1 The Mole 122 7.2 Molar Mass of Compounds 126 7.3 Percent Composition of Compounds 129 7.4 Calculating Empirical Formulas 133 7.5 Calculating the Molecular Formula from the Empirical Formula 135 Review 138 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 139 Additional Exercises 141 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 142 8 Chemical Equations 143 8.1 The Chemical Equation 144 8.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 145 8.3 Types of Chemical Equations 150 8.4 Heat in Chemical Reactions 156 8.5 Global Warming: The Greenhouse Effect 159 Review 161 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 163 Additional Exercises 165 Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 166 9 Calculations from Chemical Equations 167 9.1 Introduction to Stoichiometry 168 9.2 Mole–Mole Calculations 170 9.3 Mole–Mass Calculations 173 9.4 Mass–Mass Calculations 174 9.5 Limiting Reactant and Yield Calculations 176 Review 182 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 183 Additional Exercises 185 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 187 Putting It Together Chapters 7–9 review 188 10 Modern Atomic Theory and the Periodic Table 191 10.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 192 10.2 The Bohr Atom 193 10.3 Energy Levels of Electrons 195 10.4 Atomic Structures of the First 18 Elements 198 10.5 Electron Structures and the Periodic Table 201 Review 206 Review Questions 207 Paired Exercises 208 Additional Exercises 210 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 211 11 Chemical Bonds: The Formation of Compounds from Atoms 212 11.1 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties 213 11.2 Lewis Structures of Atoms 216 11.3 The Ionic Bond: Transfer of Electrons from One Atom to Another 217 11.4 Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds 222 11.5 The Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons 224 11.6 Electronegativity 226 11.7 Lewis Structures of Compounds 229 11.8 Complex Lewis Structures 232 11.9 Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 234 11.10 Molecular Shape 235 Review 239 Review Questions 240 Paired Exercises 241 Additional Exercises 243 Challenge Exercises 244 Answers to Practice Exercises 245 Putting It Together Chapters 10–11 review 246 12 The Gaseous State of Matter 248 12.1 Properties of Gases 249 12.2 Boyle’s Law 252 12.3 Charles’ Law 256 12.4 Avogadro’s Law 259 12.5 Combined Gas Laws 260 12.6 Ideal Gas Law 264 12.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 267 12.8 Density of Gases 270 12.9 Gas Stoichiometry 270 Review 274 Review Questions 276 Paired Exercises 277 Additional Exercises 279 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 281 13 Liquids 282 13.1 States of Matter: A Review 283 13.2 Properties of Liquids 283 13.3 Boiling Point and Melting Point 286 13.4 Changes of State 288 13.5 Intermolecular Forces 290 13.6 Hydrates 295 13.7 Water, a Unique Liquid 297 Review 300 Review Questions 301 Paired Exercises 302 Additional Exercises 303 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 304 14 Solutions 305 14.1 General Properties of Solutions 306 14.2 Solubility 307 14.3 Rate of Dissolving Solids 311 14.4 Concentration of Solutions 312 14.5 Colligative Properties of Solutions 320 14.6 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure 325 Review 326 Review Questions 328 Paired Exercises 329 Additional Exercises 332 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 333 Putting It Together Chapters 12–14 review 334 15 Acids, Bases, and Salts 337 15.1 Acids and Bases 338 15.2 Reactions of Acids and Bases 342 15.3 Salts 343 15.4 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 344 15.5 Introduction to pH 349 15.6 Neutralization 352 15.7 Writing Net Ionic Equations 354 15.8 Acid Rain 356 Review 357 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 359 Additional Exercises 361 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 362 16 Chemical Equilibrium 363 16.1 Rates of Reaction 364 16.2 Chemical Equilibrium 365 16.3 Le Châtelier’s Principle 366 16.4 Equilibrium Constants 373 16.5 Ion Product Constant for Water 374 16.6 Ionization Constants 376 16.7 Solubility Product Constant 378 16.8 Buffer Solutions: The Control of pH 381 Review 383 Review Questions 384 Paired Exercises 385 Additional Exercises 387 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 389 17 Oxidation–Reduction 390 17.1 Oxidation Number 391 17.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 395 17.3 Balancing Ionic Redox Equations 398 17.4 Activity Series of Metals 401 17.5 Electrolytic and Voltaic Cells 403 Review 407 Review Questions 409 Paired Exercises 410 Additional Exercises 412 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 413 Putting It Together Chapters 15–17 review 414 18 Nuclear Chemistry 417 18.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 418 18.2 Alpha Particles, Beta Particles, and Gamma Rays 421 18.3 Radioactive Disintegration Series 424 18.4 Measurement of Radioactivity 426 18.5 Nuclear Energy 427 18.6 Mass–Energy Relationship in Nuclear Reactions 433 18.7 Biological Effects of Radiation 434 Review 436 Review Questions 437 Paired Exercises 438 Additional Exercises 439 Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 440 Putting It Together Chapter 18 review 441 19 Organic Chemistry: Saturated Hydrocarbons 443 19.1 Organic Chemistry: History and Scope 444 19.2 The Carbon Atom: Bonding, Shape, and Hybridization 445 19.3 Classifying Organic Compounds 447 19.4 Hydrocarbons 449 19.5 Saturated Hydrocarbons: Alkanes 450 19.6 Structural Formulas 451 19.7 Isomerism 453 19.8 Naming Organic Compounds 456 19.9 Introduction to the Reactions of Carbon 461 19.10 Reactions of Alkanes 463 19.11 Cycloalkanes 468 19.12 Gasoline: A Major Petroleum Product 471 Review 473 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 475 Additional Exercises 478 Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 479 20 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons 481 20.1 Bonding in Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 482 20.2 Nomenclature of Alkenes 484 20.3 Geometric Isomerism in Alkenes 487 20.4 Cycloalkenes 492 20.5 Preparation and Properties of Alkenes 493 20.6 Nomenclature and Properties of Alkynes 499 20.7 Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Structure of Benzene 501 20.8 Naming Aromatic Compounds 503 20.9 Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 508 20.10 Sources and Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons 510 Review 513 Review Questions 514 Paired Exercises 515 Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercises 518 Answers to Practice Exercises 519 21 Polymers: Macromolecules 520 21.1 Macromolecules 521 21.2 Synthetic Polymers 521 21.3 Polymer Types 522 21.4 Addition Polymerization 523 21.5 Recycling Plastics 525 21.6 Butadiene Polymers 527 21.7 Geometric Isomerism in Polymers 529 Review 530 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 531 Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 532 Putting It Together Chapters 19–21 review 533 22 Alcohols, Ethers, Phenols, and Thiols 537 22.1 Structure and Classification of Alcohols 538 22.2 Naming Alcohols 540 22.3 Physical Properties of Alcohols 542 22.4 Chemical Properties of Alcohols 544 22.5 Common Alcohols 551 22.6 Phenols 554 22.7 Properties and Preparation of Phenols 557 22.8 Ethers 558 22.9 Properties and Preparation of Ethers 561 22.10 Thiols 563 Review 564 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 566 Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercises 570 Answers to Practice Exercises 571 23 Aldehydes and Ketones 572 23.1 Structures of Aldehydes and Ketones 573 23.2 Naming Aldehydes and Ketones 573 23.3 Bonding and Physical Properties 577 23.4 Chemical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones 580 23.5 Common Aldehydes and Ketones 588 23.6 Condensation Polymers 590 Review 591 Review Questions 592 Paired Exercises 593 Additional Exercises 595 Challenge Exercise 596 Answers to Practice Exercises 597 Putting It Together Chapters 22–23 review 598 24 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 603 24.1 Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature and Sources of Aliphatic Carboxylic Acids 604 24.2 Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids 607 24.3 Classification of Carboxylic Acids 609 24.4 Preparation and Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acids 613 24.5 Nomenclature of Esters 618 24.6 Occurrence and Physical Properties of Esters 621 24.7 Polyesters: Condensation Polymers 621 24.8 Chemical Properties of Esters 622 24.9 Glycerol Esters 624 24.10 Soaps and Synthetic Detergents 627 24.11 Esters and Anhydrides of Phosphoric Acid 631 Review 632 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 635 Additional Exercises 638 Challenge Exercises 639 Answers to Practice Exercises 640 25 Amides and Amines: Organic Nitrogen Compounds 641 25.1 Amides: Nomenclature and Physical Properties 642 25.2 Chemical Properties of Amides 646 25.3 Polyamides: Condensation Polymers 647 25.4 Urea 648 25.5 Amines: Nomenclature and Physical Properties 648 25.6 Preparation of Amines 653 25.7 Chemical Properties of Amines 654 25.8 Sources and Uses of Selected Amines 657 Review 660 Review Questions 661 Paired Exercises 662 Additional Exercises 664 Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 665 Putting It Together Chapters 24–25 review 666 26 Stereoisomerism 671 26.1 Review of Isomerism 672 26.2 Plane-Polarized Light and Optical Activity 672 26.3 Fischer Projection Formulas 675 26.4 Enantiomers 677 26.5 Racemic Mixtures 682 26.6 Diastereomers and Meso Compounds 684 Review 687 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 688 Additional Exercises 691 Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 692 27 Carbohydrates 694 27.1 Carbohydrates: A First Class of Biochemicals 695 27.2 Classification of Carbohydrates 696 27.3 Importance of Carbohydrates for Life 698 27.4 Common Monosaccharides 699 27.5 Structure of Glucose and Other Aldoses 700 27.6 Cyclic Structures of Common Hexoses 704 27.7 Hemiacetals and Acetals 708 27.8 Pentoses 709 27.9 Structures and Properties of Disaccharides 710 27.10 Sweeteners and Diet 713 27.11 Redox Reactions of Monosaccharides 715 27.12 Polysaccharides 719 Review 724 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 727 Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercises 729 Answers to Practice Exercises 730 28 Lipids 731 28.1 Lipid Characteristics and Classification 732 28.2 Simple Lipids 733 28.3 Fats in Metabolism 738 28.4 Compound Lipids 739 28.5 Steroids 743 28.6 Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology 744 Review 750 Review Questions 751 Paired Exercises 752 Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 753 Putting It Together Chapters 26–28 review 754 29 Amino Acids, Polypeptides, and Proteins 759 29.1 The Structure–Function Connection 760 29.2 The Nature of Amino Acids 760 29.3 Formation of Polypeptides 766 29.4 Protein Structure 770 29.5 Protein Functions 773 29.6 Some Examples of Proteins and Their Structures 775 29.7 Loss of Protein Structure 783 29.8 Tests for Proteins and Amino Acids 784 29.9 Determination of the Primary Structure of Polypeptides 787 Review 789 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 792 Additional Exercises 794 Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 795 30 Enzymes 796 30.1 Molecular Accelerators 797 30.2 Rates of Chemical Reactions 798 30.3 Enzyme Kinetics 801 30.4 Industrial-Strength Enzymes 803 30.5 Enzyme Active Site 805 30.6 Temperature and pH Effects on Enzyme Catalysis 808 30.7 Enzyme Regulation 809 Review 811 Review Questions 812 Paired Exercises 813 Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 814 31 Nucleic Acids and Heredity 815 31.1 Molecules of Heredity—Bases and Nucleosides 816 31.2 Nucleotides: Phosphate Esters 819 31.3 High-Energy Nucleotides 820 31.4 Polynucleotides; Nucleic Acids 822 31.5 Structure of DNA 823 31.6 DNA Replication 827 31.7 RNA: Genetic Transcription 833 31.8 The Genetic Code—Genes and Medicine 836 31.9 Biosynthesis of Proteins 839 31.10 Changing the Genome: Mutations and Genetic Engineering 840 Review 844 Review Questions 846 Paired Exercises 847 Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 848 Putting It Together Chapters 29–31 review 850 32 Nutrition 854 32.1 Nutrients and Diet 855 32.2 Energy in the Diet 857 32.3 Macronutrients 858 32.4 Vitamins, Vital Micronutrients 861 32.5 Minerals 863 32.6 Water 864 32.7 Nutrition Content Labeling 864 32.8 Food Additives 866 32.9 A Balanced Diet 868 32.10 Human Digestion 870 Review 873 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 875 Additional Exercises 876 Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 877 33 Bioenergetics 878 33.1 Metabolism and Cell Structure 879 33.2 Biological Oxidation–Reduction: An Important Energy Source 880 33.3 Molecular Oxygen and Metabolism 884 33.4 High-Energy Phosphate Bonds 885 33.5 Phosphorylation: Energy Transfer 886 33.6 ATP Use and Muscle Contraction 889 33.7 Photosynthesis 892 Review 893 Review Questions 894 Paired Exercises 895 Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 896 34 Carbohydrate Metabolism 897 34.1 Metabolic Pathways, Carbohydrates, and Cooperation 898 34.2 Anaerobic Sequence 903 34.3 Citric Acid Cycle (Aerobic Sequence) 907 34.4 Gluconeogenesis 910 34.5 Overview of Complex Metabolic Pathways 910 34.6 Hormones 912 34.7 Blood Glucose and Hormones 913 Review 915 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 917 Additional Exercises 918 Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 919 35 Metabolism of Lipids and Proteins 920 35.1 Metabolic Energy Sources: Organs Working Together for the Common Good 921 35.2 Fatty Acid Oxidation (Beta Oxidation) 922 35.3 Fat Storage and Biosynthesis (Lipogenesis) 926 35.4 Ketone Bodies 928 35.5 Metabolic Nitrogen Fixation 929 35.6 Amino Acids and Metabolic Nitrogen Balance 931 35.7 Amino Acids and Nitrogen Transfer 932 35.8 Nitrogen Excretion and the Urea Cycle 934 35.9 Acetyl-CoA, Central Molecule in Metabolism 936 Review 938 Review Questions, Paired Exercises 940 Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercise 941 Answers to Practice Exercises 942 Putting It Together Chapters 32–35 review 943 Appendices I. Mathematical Review A-1 II. Using a Scientific Calculator A-10 III. Units of Measurement A-14 IV. Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-15 V. Solubility Table A-16 VI. Answers to Selected Exercises A-17 VII. Answers to Putting It Together Review Exercises A-48 Glossary G-1 Index I-1