Hydrogen Energetics

Preface xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Terminology 1 1.2 Sustainability and Climate Change 4 1.3 Decarbonization 4 1.4 Climate Change 5 1.5 Energy Ethics 10 1.6 Hydrogen Economy: Pros and Cons 11 1.6.1 Incentives for Transition to Hydrogen 11 1.6.2 Existing Limitations 12 2 Energy Resources 15 2.1 Nonrenewable Energy Sources 15 2.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 15 2.1.2 Coal 16 2.1.3 Petroleum 17 2.1.4 Natural Gas 19 2.1.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 19 2.2 Renewable Energy 22 2.2.1 Solar Energy 24 2.2.1.1 Solar Energy Benefits 25 2.2.1.2 Solar Energy Disadvantages 25 2.2.1.3 Solar Cells 26 2.2.2 Wind Energy 26 2.2.2.1 Advantages of Wind Power 28 2.2.2.2 Disadvantages of Wind Power 28 2.2.3 Hydroelectric Power 28 2.2.3.1 Advantages of Hydroelectricity 29 2.2.3.2 Disadvantages of Hydroelectricity 29 2.2.4 Biomass Energy 30 2.2.5 Biomass Energy from Landfills and Biofuels 32 2.2.5.1 Benefits of Biofuels 33 2.2.5.2 Disadvantages of Biofuels 33 2.2.5.3 Summary of Hay as a Biofuel 33 2.2.6 Geothermal Energy: Harnessing the Earth’s Heat 34 2.2.6.1 Types of Geothermal Resources 34 2.2.6.2 Natural Hydrothermal Features 35 2.2.6.3 Advantages of Geothermal Energy 35 2.2.6.4 Challenges of Geothermal Energy 36 2.2.7 Geothermal Heating: Tapping into Earth’s Stable Temperatures 36 2.2.7.1 How Geothermal Heating Works 36 2.2.7.2 Components of Geothermal Heat Pump Systems 36 2.2.7.3 Efficiency Comparison 36 2.2.7.4 Advantages of Geothermal Heating 37 2.2.7.5 Challenges 37 2.2.8 Ocean Energy: Harnessing the Power of Tides 37 2.2.8.1 Tidal Energy Mechanisms 38 2.2.8.2 Environmental Impact and Global Presence 38 2.2.8.3 Global Renewable Energy Trends 39 2.3 Nuclear Energy: An Alternative Power Source 39 2.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Power 40 2.3.1.1 Advantages of Nuclear Power 40 2.3.1.2 Disadvantages of Nuclear Power 40 2.3.2 Nuclear Fission and Uranium Enrichment 41 2.3.3 Fusion: The Future of Nuclear Energy 42 3 Hydrogen Properties 47 3.1 General Characteristics and Physical Properties of Hydrogen 47 3.1.1 Chemical Properties of Hydrogen 50 3.1.2 Chemical Reactions of Hydrogen 51 3.1.3 Health Effects of Hydrogen 52 3.1.4 Hydrogen Isotopes 53 3.2 Hydrogen Bonding 54 3.3 Occurrence of Hydrogen 54 3.4 Comparing Hydrogen to Other Fuels 55 4 Fuel Cells: Essential Information 59 4.1 Overview 59 4.2 FC Technologies: Classification and Comparison 60 4.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells 60 4.2.1.1 PEMFC Fabrication Hardware 63 4.2.1.2 Membrane Electrode Assembly 63 4.2.1.3 The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) 64 4.2.1.4 The Electrodes 64 4.2.1.5 Bipolar Plates 64 4.2.1.6 The PEMFC Stack 65 4.2.1.7 Electrode Poisoning 66 4.2.1.8 FC Reformers 66 4.2.2 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) 67 4.2.3 Electrodes in AFCs 68 4.2.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) 69 4.2.5 Electrodes in MCFCs 71 4.2.6 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) 71 4.2.7 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) 72 4.2.8 Electrodes in SOFCs 74 4.2.9 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell 75 4.3 FC Architecture 76 4.3.1 FCPS Subsystems 76 4.3.2 Balance of Plant 78 4.3.3 Membraneless FC 79 5 Hydrogen Technology Essentials 81 5.1 Hydrogen Safety 81 5.1.1 Liquid Hydrogen Safety 83 5.1.2 Flammability 83 5.1.2.1 Containers 84 5.1.2.2 Tanks 84 5.1.3 Transferring Liquid Hydrogen 84 5.1.3.1 Shipment 85 5.1.4 Safety Considerations 85 5.1.5 Hydrogen–Ammonia Blend Safety 86 5.1.6 Codes and Standards for Safety 88 5.1.7 Hydrogen Sensors 88 5.1.8 Hydrogen Safety-Related Properties 89 5.2 Energy Storage Technologies 89 5.2.1 Chemical Storage 90 5.2.1.1 Flow Batteries 90 5.2.1.2 Powerpaste 90 5.2.1.3 Power to Gas 91 5.2.1.4 Power to Liquid 92 5.2.1.5 Pumped-hydro Storage 92 5.2.1.6 Underground Hydrogen Storage 93 5.2.1.7 Aluminum as an Energy Source 94 5.2.1.8 Home Energy Storage 95 5.2.1.9 Grid Electricity and Power Stations 95 5.2.1.10 Vehicle-to-Grid Storage 95 5.2.1.11 Economics of Energy Storage 95 5.3 Hydrogen Storage for Transportation 96 5.3.1 Storage of Hydrogen as a Compressed Gas 98 5.3.2 Storage of Hydrogen as a Liquid 100 5.3.3 Solid Hydrogen Storage: Chemical Methods 102 5.3.4 Reversible Metal Hydride–Hydrogen Storage 102 5.3.4.1 Metal Hydride–Hydrogen Storage 104 5.3.5 Alkali Metal Hydrides 105 5.3.6 Carbon Nanostructures 105 5.3.7 Other Technologies 106 5.4 Hydrogen Infrastructure 107 5.5 Hydrogen Transportation via Pipeline 108 5.6 Ammonia as an Energy Carrier 111 5.6.1 Compressed Hydrogen 113 5.6.2 Liquid Hydrogen 113 5.7 Blending Hydrogen in Natural Gas Pipelines 115 5.7.1 Methanol Transportation as a Comparison 115 5.7.2 Petroleum Transportation as a Comparison 116 5.7.3 Realistic Approaches for Hydrogen Transportation 116 5.8 Hydrogen Bonding 118 5.9 Hydrogen Extraction from Blended Mixtures 119 5.9.1 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) Technology 119 5.9.2 Membrane Separation Technology 120 5.9.3 Electrochemical Hydrogen Separation (EHS) 120 5.9.4 Cost Analysis of Hydrogen Extraction 120 6 Hydrogen Production: Current Practices and Emerging Technologies 123 6.1 Hydrogen Production from Fossil Sources 123 6.1.1 Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) 123 6.1.1.1 Chemical Equation and Purpose 124 6.1.1.2 Process Description 124 6.1.2 Methane Pyrolysis 125 6.1.2.1 Process Overview 125 6.1.2.2 Temperature and Variations 125 6.1.2.3 Chemical Reaction and Environmental Impact 125 6.1.3 Coal Gasification 126 6.1.3.1 Water–Gas Shift Reaction 126 6.1.3.2 Hydrogen Purification 126 6.1.3.3 Commercial Coal Gasification Processes 126 6.1.3.4 Comparison with Steam Reforming of Natural Gas 126 6.1.4 Partial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons 127 6.1.4.1 Fundamentals of the Process 127 6.1.4.2 Enhancing Hydrogen Content 127 6.1.4.3 Application in Heavy Hydrocarbons 127 6.1.5 Petroleum-Refining Operations 128 6.1.5.1 Hydrogen Recovery in Refining Processes 128 6.1.5.2 Environmental Impact of Conventional Hydrogen Production 128 6.1.5.3 Ongoing Research and Development Efforts 128 6.2 Hydrogen Production from Renewable Sources 129 6.2.1 Green Hydrogen Production 129 6.2.1.1 Electrolysis and Its Applications 129 6.2.1.2 Challenges and Potential of Green Hydrogen 129 6.2.1.3 Environmental Impact 130 6.2.2 Blue Hydrogen Production 130 6.2.3 Pink Hydrogen 130 6.2.3.1 The Future of Nuclear-Generated Hydrogen 131 6.2.4 Gray Hydrogen 132 6.2.4.1 Overview of Gray Hydrogen 132 6.2.4.2 Costs and Environmental Implications 132 6.2.5 Turquoise Hydrogen 132 6.2.5.1 Innovative Production of Turquoise Hydrogen 132 6.2.6 Yellow Hydrogen 132 6.2.6.1 Thermal Solar Production of Yellow Hydrogen 132 6.3 Current Industrial Hydrogen Production 133 6.3.1 Global Production and Market Value 133 6.3.2 Industrial Methods of Hydrogen Production 133 6.3.3 Electrolysis of Water 133 6.3.3.1 Historical Development and Fundamentals 133 6.3.3.2 Electrolysis Techniques in Hydrogen Production 134 6.3.3.3 Electrolysis Reactions 134 6.3.3.4 High-Pressure Electrolysis 134 6.3.3.5 High-Temperature Electrolysis 135 6.3.3.6 The Evolution of Electrolysis Technology 135 6.3.4 Water Splitting Using Solar Energy 135 6.3.4.1 Thermochemical Cycles for Water Splitting 135 6.3.4.2 Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting 136 6.3.4.3 Photocatalyst Development by Panasonic Corp. 136 6.3.4.4 Wind Energy and Hydrogen Production 136 6.3.5 Biomass Gasification with Bacteria 137 6.3.6 Hydrogen as a By-product of Other Chemical Processes 138 6.3.6.1 Ammonia Dissociation 138 6.3.6.2 Hydrogen in Industrial Production 139 6.3.7 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Utilization for Hydrogen Production 139 6.3.7.1 Composition and Utilization of LFG 140 6.3.7.2 Potential for Hydrogen Production 140 6.4 Traditional Hydrogen Production Methods 140 6.4.1 Renewable Energy Sources in Hydrogen Production 142 6.5 Conclusion 142 7 Hydrogen Applications 143 7.1 Current Industrial Applications 143 7.1.1 Ammonia Synthesis 143 7.1.2 Food and Beverage Industry 144 7.1.3 Electronics Manufacturing 144 7.1.4 Pharmaceutical Industry 145 7.1.5 Glass, Cement, and Lime Production 145 7.1.6 Polymers 145 7.1.7 Metal Industry 146 7.1.8 Metallic Ore Reduction 146 7.1.9 Oil and Gas 146 7.1.10 Methanol Production 146 7.1.11 Automotive and Transportation 147 7.1.12 Space-Aviation 147 7.1.13 Hydrogen in Welding, Cutting, and Coating 147 7.1.14 Weather Balloons 148 7.1.15 Hydrogen as a Coolant 148 7.1.16 Searching Gas 149 7.1.17 Chemical Analysis 149 7.1.18 Isotope Applications 149 7.1.19 Burning Hydrogen for Electricity Generation 149 7.2 FC-Specific Applications 151 7.2.1 Stationary Power Production 151 7.2.2 FC Transportation 152 7.2.3 Well-to-Wheel Analysis 153 7.2.4 Practical Transportation Applications 154 7.2.5 Other Transport Applications 154 7.2.6 Micropower Systems 157 7.2.7 Mobile and Residential Power Systems 158 7.2.8 FCs for Space and Military Applications 159 7.2.9 Maritime Applications 161 7.2.10 Wearable Technology and Internet of Things (IoT) 161 7.2.11 Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs) 161 7.2.12 Emergency and Disaster Relief 162 7.3 Electric Batteries 162 7.3.1 History 162 7.3.2 Primary Batteries 165 7.3.3 Batteries for Portable Devices 165 7.3.4 Secondary Batteries 166 7.3.5 Traction Battery 168 7.3.6 Rechargeable Batteries 169 7.3.7 Lead-Acid Batteries 170 7.3.8 Lithium-ion Batteries 171 7.3.9 NiMH and High-Temperature Batteries 173 7.3.10 Molten Salt Battery 174 7.3.11 Recharging 175 7.3.11.1 Charging Infrastructure 175 7.3.11.2 EV Range and Battery Evolution 176 7.3.12 Battery Specifications 176 7.3.12.1 Environmental Impact and Recycling 176 7.4 Hydrogen Transportation 177 7.4.1 FC Reformers 177 7.4.2 Steam Reformer 178 7.4.3 Fuel Processor 179 7.4.4 FCS Architecture 180 7.4.5 Power Conditioning and Controls 181 7.4.6 Balance of Plant 181 7.4.7 FCPS Subsystems 181 7.4.8 FCPS Functions and Features 183 7.4.9 FCPS Performance Characteristics 183 7.4.10 Fuel Choice 184 7.5 The Human Mobility in the 21st Century 186 7.5.1 Electric Transportation 186 7.5.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 188 7.5.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles 189 7.5.4 All-Electric Vehicles 189 7.5.5 Comparison with ICEs 190 7.5.6 Fuel Cells vs. Electric Batteries 190 7.5.7 Social Influence of Autonomous Cars 191 7.5.8 Employment and AVs 192 7.5.9 Urban Future in the Era of AVs 193 7.5.9.1 Key Transformations Induced by AVs 193 7.5.9.2 Social and Economic Implications 194 7.5.9.3 Transportation Efficiency 194 7.5.10 Financial Implications of AVs 194 7.5.11 Self-Driving Functionality and Levels of Autonomy 195 7.5.12 Safety Considerations in AV Technology 196 7.5.13 Cloud Network Database Establishment for AVs 196 7.5.14 The Rise of AVs 197 7.6 Conclusion 197 Used Literature 199 Index 211