Ultrasound Elastography for Biomedical Applications and Medicine

List of Contributors xix Section I Introduction 1 1 Editors’ Introduction 3 Ivan Nenadic, Matthew Urban, James Greenleaf, Jean-Luc Gennisson,Miguel Bernal, and Mickael Tanter References 5 Section II Fundamentals of Ultrasound Elastography 7 2 Theory of Ultrasound Physics and Imaging 9 Roberto Lavarello andMichael L. Oelze 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Modeling the Response of the Source to Stimuli [h(t)] 10 2.3 Modeling the Fields from Sources [p(t, x)] 12 2.4 Modeling an Ultrasonic Scattered Field [s(t, x)] 15 2.5 Modeling the Bulk Properties of the Medium [a(t, x)] 19 2.6 Processing Approaches Derived from the Physics of Ultrasound [Ω] 21 2.7 Conclusions 26 References 27 3 Elastography and the Continuum of Tissue Response 29 Kevin J. Parker 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Some Classical Solutions 31 3.3 The Continuum Approach 32 3.4 Conclusion 33 Acknowledgments 33 References 34 4 Ultrasonic Methods for Assessment of TissueMotion in Elastography 35 Jingfeng Jiang and Bo Peng 4.1 Introduction 35 4.2 Basic Concepts and their Relevance in Tissue Motion Tracking 36 4.3 Tracking Tissue Motion through Frequency-domain Methods 37 4.4 Maximum Likelihood (ML) Time-domain Correlation-based Methods 39 4.5 Tracking Tissue Motion through Combining Time-domain and Frequency-domain Information 44 4.6 Time-domain Maximum A Posterior (MAP) Speckle Tracking Methods 45 4.7 Optical Flow-based Tissue Motion Tracking 53 4.8 Deformable Mesh-based Motion-tracking Methods 55 4.9 Future Outlook 57 4.10 Conclusions 63 Acknowledgments 63 Acronyms 63 Additional Nomenclature of Definitions and Acronyms 64 References 65 Section III Theory of Mechanical Properties of Tissue 71 5 Continuum Mechanics Tensor Calculus and Solutions toWave Equations 73 Luiz Vasconcelos, Jean-Luc Gennisson, and Ivan Nenadic 5.1 Introduction 73 5.2 Mathematical Basis and Notation 73 5.3 Solutions toWave Equations 75 References 81 6 TransverseWave Propagation in Anisotropic Media 82 Jean-Luc Gennisson 6.1 Introduction 82 6.2 Theoretical Considerations from General to Transverse Isotropic Models for Soft Tissues 82 6.3 Experimental Assessment of Anisotropic Ratio by ShearWave Elastography 87 6.4 Conclusion 88 References 88 7 TransverseWave Propagation in Bounded Media 90 Javier Brum 7.1 Introduction 90 7.2 TransverseWave Propagation in Isotropic Elastic Plates 90 7.3 Plate in Vacuum: LambWaves 93 7.4 Viscoelastic Plate in Liquid: Leaky LambWaves 96 7.5 Isotropic Plate Embedded Between Two Semi-infinite Elastic Solids 99 7.6 TransverseWave Propagation in Anisotropic Viscoelastic Plates Surrounded by Non-viscous Fluid 100 7.7 Conclusions 103 Acknowledgments 103 References 103 8 Rheological Model-based Methods for Estimating Tissue Viscoelasticity 105 Jean-Luc Gennisson 8.1 Introduction 105 8.2 Shear Modulus and Rheological Models 106 8.3 Applications of Rheological Models 113 References 116 9 Wave Propagation in ViscoelasticMaterials 118 YueWang andMichael F. Insana 9.1 Introduction 118 9.2 Estimating the Complex Shear Modulus from PropagatingWaves 119 9.3 Wave Generation and Propagation 120 9.4 Rheological Models 122 9.5 Experimental Results and Applications 124 9.6 Summary 125 References 126 Section IV Static and Low Frequency Elastography 129 10 Validation of Quantitative Linear and Nonlinear Compression Elastography 131 Jean Francois Dord, Sevan Goenezen, Assad A. Oberai, Paul E. Barbone, Jingfeng Jiang,Timothy J. Hall, and Theo Pavan 10.1 Introduction 131 10.2 Methods 132 10.3 Results 134 10.4 Discussion 137 10.5 Conclusions 140 Acknowledgement 141 References 141 11 Cardiac Strain and Strain Rate Imaging 143 Brecht Heyde, OanaMirea, and Jan D’hooge 11.1 Introduction 143 11.2 Strain Definitions in Cardiology 143 11.3 Methodologies Towards Cardiac Strain (Rate) Estimation 145 11.4 Experimental Validation of the Proposed Methodologies 149 11.4.1 Synthetic Data Testing 150 11.5 Clinical Applications 151 11.6 Future Developments 153 References 154 12 Vascular and Intravascular Elastography 161 Marvin M. Doyley 12.1 Introduction 161 12.2 General Principles 161 12.3 Conclusion 168 References 168 13 Viscoelastic Creep Imaging 171 Carolina Amador Carrascal 13.1 Introduction 171 13.2 Overview of Governing Principles 172 13.3 Imaging Techniques 173 13.4 Conclusion 187 References 187 14 Intrinsic CardiovascularWave and Strain Imaging 189 Elisa Konofagou 14.1 Introduction 189 14.2 Cardiac Imaging 189 14.3 Vascular Imaging 208 Acknowledgements 219 References 219 Section V Harmonic ElastographyMethods 227 15 Dynamic Elasticity Imaging 229 Kevin J. Parker 15.1 Vibration Amplitude Sonoelastography: Early Results 229 15.2 Sonoelastic Theory 229 15.3 Vibration Phase Gradient Sonoelastography 232 15.4 CrawlingWaves 233 15.5 Clinical Results 233 15.6 Conclusion 234 Acknowledgments 235 References 235 16 Harmonic ShearWave Elastography 238 Heng Zhao 16.1 Introduction 238 16.2 Basic Principles 239 16.3 Ex Vivo Validation 242 16.4 In Vivo Application 244 16.5 Summary 246 Acknowledgments 247 References 247 17 Vibro-acoustography and its Medical Applications 250 Azra Alizad andMostafa Fatemi 17.1 Introduction 250 17.2 Background 250 17.3 Application of Vibro-acoustography for Detection of Calcifications 251 17.4 In Vivo Breast Vibro-acoustography 254 17.5 In VivoThyroid Vibro-acoustography 259 17.6 Limitations and Further Future Plans 260 Acknowledgments 261 References 261 18 Harmonic Motion Imaging 264 Elisa Konofagou 18.1 Introduction 264 18.2 Background 264 18.3 Methods 267 18.4 Preclinical Studies 273 18.5 Future Prospects 277 Acknowledgements 279 References 279 19 ShearWave Dispersion Ultrasound Vibrometry 284 Pengfei Song and Shigao Chen 19.1 Introduction 284 19.2 Principles of ShearWave Dispersion Ultrasound Vibrometry (SDUV) 284 19.3 Clinical Applications 286 19.4 Summary 291 References 292 Section VI Transient ElastographyMethods 295 20 Transient Elastography: From Research to Noninvasive Assessment of Liver Fibrosis Using Fibroscan® 297 Laurent Sandrin,Magali Sasso, Stéphane Audière, Cécile Bastard, Céline Fournier,Jennifer Oudry, Véronique Miette, and Stefan Catheline 20.1 Introduction 297 20.2 Principles of Transient Elastography 297 20.3 Fibroscan 301 20.4 Application of Vibration-controlled Transient Elastography to Liver Diseases 306 20.5 Other Applications of Transient Elastography 309 20.6 Conclusion 310 References 311 21 From Time Reversal to Natural ShearWave Imaging 318 Stefan Catheline 21.1 Introduction: Time Reversal ShearWave in Soft Solids 318 21.2 ShearWave Elastography using Correlation: Principle and Simulation Results 320 21.3 Experimental Validation in Controlled Media 323 21.4 Natural ShearWave Elastography: First In Vivo Results in the Liver, theThyroid, and the Brain 328 21.5 Conclusion 331 References 331 22 Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse Ultrasound 334 Tomasz J. Czernuszewicz and Caterina M. Gallippi 22.1 Introduction 334 22.2 Impulsive Acoustic Radiation Force 334 22.3 Monitoring ARFI-induced Tissue Motion 335 22.4 ARFI Data Acquisition 340 22.5 ARFI Image Formation 341 22.6 Real-time ARFI Imaging 343 22.7 Quantitative ARFI Imaging 345 22.8 ARFI Imaging in Clinical Applications 346 22.9 Commercial Implementation 350 22.10 Related Technologies 350 22.11 Conclusions 351 References 351 23 Supersonic Shear Imaging 357 Jean-Luc Gennisson andMickael Tanter 23.1 Introduction 357 23.2 Radiation Force Excitation 357 23.3 Ultrafast Imaging 362 23.4 ShearWave Speed Mapping 364 23.5 Conclusion 365 References 366 24 Single Tracking Location ShearWave Elastography 368 Stephen A.McAleavey 24.1 Introduction 368 24.2 SMURF 370 24.3 STL-SWEI 373 24.4 Noise in SWE/Speckle Bias 376 24.5 Estimation of viscoelastic parameters (STL-VE) 380 24.6 Conclusion 384 References 384 25 Comb-push Ultrasound Shear Elastography 388 Pengfei Song and Shigao Chen 25.1 Introduction 388 25.2 Principles of Comb-push Ultrasound Shear Elastography (CUSE) 389 25.3 Clinical Applications of CUSE 396 25.4 Summary 396 References 397 Section VII Emerging Research Areas in Ultrasound Elastography 399 26 Anisotropic ShearWave Elastography 401 Sara Aristizabal 26.1 Introduction 401 26.2 ShearWave Propagation in Anisotropic Media 402 26.3 Anisotropic ShearWave Elastography Applications 403 26.4 Conclusion 420 References 420 27 Application of GuidedWaves for Quantifying Elasticity and Viscoelasticity of Boundary Sensitive Organs 422 Sara Aristizabal, Matthew Urban, Luiz Vasconcelos, BenjaminWood,Miguel Bernal,Javier Brum, and Ivan Nenadic 27.1 Introduction 422 27.2 Myocardium 422 27.3 Arteries 426 27.4 Urinary Bladder 431 27.5 Cornea 433 27.6 Tendons 435 27.7 Conclusions 439 References 439 28 Model-free Techniques for Estimating Tissue Viscoelasticity 442 Daniel Escobar, Luiz Vasconcelos, Carolina Amador Carrascal, and Ivan Nenadic 28.1 Introduction 442 28.2 Overview of Governing Principles 442 28.3 Imaging Techniques 443 28.4 Conclusion 449 References 449 29 Nonlinear Shear Elasticity 451 Jean-Luc Gennisson and Sara Aristizabal 29.1 Introduction 451 29.2 Shocked Plane ShearWaves 451 29.3 Nonlinear Interaction of Plane ShearWaves 455 29.4 Acoustoelasticity Theory 460 29.5 Assessment of 4th Order Nonlinear Shear Parameter 465 29.6 Conclusion 468 References 468 Section VIII Clinical Elastography Applications 471 30 Current and Future Clinical Applications of Elasticity Imaging Techniques 473 Matthew Urban 30.1 Introduction 473 30.2 Clinical Implementation and Use of Elastography 474 30.3 Clinical Applications 475 30.3.1 Liver 475 30.3.2 Breast 476 30.3.3 Thyroid 476 30.3.4 Musculoskeletal 476 30.3.5 Kidney 477 30.3.6 Heart 478 30.3.7 Arteries and Atherosclerotic Plaques 479 30.4 FutureWork in Clinical Applications of Elastography 480 30.5 Conclusions 480 Acknowledgments 480 References 481 31 Abdominal Applications of ShearWave Ultrasound Vibrometry and Supersonic Shear Imaging 492 Pengfei Song and Shigao Chen 31.1 Introduction 492 31.2 Liver Application 492 31.3 Prostate Application 494 31.4 Kidney Application 495 31.5 Intestine Application 496 31.6 Uterine Cervix Application 497 31.7 Spleen Application 497 31.8 Pancreas Application 497 31.9 Bladder Application 498 31.10 Summary 499 References 499 32 Acoustic Radiation Force-based Ultrasound Elastography for Cardiac Imaging Applications 504 Stephanie A. Eyerly-Webb,MaryamVejdani-Jahromi, Vaibhav Kakkad, Peter Hollender,David Bradway, andGregg Trahey 32.1 Introduction 504 32.2 Acoustic Radiation Force-based Elastography Techniques 504 32.3 ARF-based Elasticity Assessment of Cardiac Function 505 32.4 ARF-based Image Guidance for Cardiac Radiofrequency Ablation Procedures 510 32.5 Conclusions 515 Funding Acknowledgements 515 References 516 33 Cardiovascular Application of ShearWave Elastography 520 Pengfei Song and Shigao Chen 33.1 Introduction 520 33.2 Cardiovascular ShearWave Imaging Techniques 521 33.3 Clinical Applications of Cardiovascular ShearWave Elastography 525 33.4 Summary 529 References 530 34 Musculoskeletal Applications of Supersonic Shear Imaging 534 Jean-Luc Gennisson 34.1 Introduction 534 34.2 Muscle Stiffness at Rest and During Passive Stretching 535 34.3 Active and Dynamic Muscle Stiffness 537 34.4 Tendon Applications 539 34.5 Clinical Applications 541 34.6 Future Directions 542 References 542 35 Breast ShearWave Elastography 545 Azra Alizad 35.1 Introduction 545 35.2 Background 545 35.3 Breast Elastography Techniques 546 35.4 Application of CUSE for Breast Cancer Detection 548 35.5 CUSE on a Clinical Ultrasound Scanner 549 35.6 Limitations of Breast ShearWave Elastography 551 35.7 Conclusion 552 Acknowledgments 552 References 552 36 Thyroid ShearWave Elastography 557 Azra Alizad 36.1 Introduction 557 36.2 Background 557 36.3 Role of Ultrasound and its Limitation inThyroid Cancer Detection 557 36.4 Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy (FNAB) 558 36.5 The Role of Elasticity Imaging 558 36.6 Application of CUSE onThyroid 561 36.7 CUSE on Clinical Ultrasound Scanner 561 36.8 Conclusion 563 Acknowledgments 564 References 564 Section IX Perspective on Ultrasound Elastography 567 37 Historical Growth of Ultrasound Elastography and Directions for the Future 569 Armen Sarvazyan andMatthewW. Urban 37.1 Introduction 569 37.2 Elastography Publication Analysis 569 37.3 Future Investigations of Acoustic Radiation Force for Elastography 574 37.3.1 Nondissipative Acoustic Radiation Force 574 37.3.2 Nonlinear Enhancement of Acoustic Radiation Force 575 37.3.3 SpatialModulation of Acoustic Radiation Force Push Beams 575 37.4 Conclusions 576 Acknowledgments 577 References 577 Index 581