Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering, 2 Volume Set

VOLUME 1 PREFACE xxiii CONTRIBUTORS xxvii PART I CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 1 1 New and Emerging Technologies in Structural Health Monitoring 3 Merit Enckell, Jacob Egede Andersen, Branko Glisic, and Johan Silfwerbrand 1.1 Introduction, 5 1.2 Background, 6 1.3 New and Emerging Technologies, 8 1.4 Fiber-Optic Technology, 16 1.5 Acoustic Emission, 24 1.6 Radar Technology, 27 1.7 Global Positioning System, 31 1.8 Corrosion Monitoring Systems, 33 1.9 Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) Systems, 35 1.10 Components of Structural Health Monitoring System, 37 1.11 Structural Health Monitoring System Design, 41 1.12 System Procurement and Installation, 44 1.13 Application of Structural Health Monitoring Systems, 47 1.14 Discussion, 67 1.15 Conclusion, 69 Acknowledgments, 70 References, 71 2 Applications of GIS in Engineering Measurements 79 Gary S. Spring 2.1 Introduction, 79 2.2 Background, 80 2.3 Basic Principles of GIS, 81 2.4 Measurement-Based GIS Applications, 96 2.5 Implementation Issues, 97 2.6 Conclusion, 100 References, 102 3 Traffic Congestion Management 105 Nagui M. Rouphail 3.1 Introduction and Background, 105 3.2 Scope of the Chapter, 106 3.3 Organization of the Chapter, 107 3.4 Fundamentals of Vehicle Emission Estimation, 107 3.5 Inventory of Traffic Congestion Management Methods, 112 3.6 Assessing Emission Impacts of Traffic Congestion Management, 119 3.7 Summary, 128 Acknowledgments, 129 References, 129 4 Seismic Testing of Highway Bridges 133 Eric V. Monzon, Ahmad M. Itani, and Gokhan Pekcan 4.1 Introduction, 133 4.2 Similitude Requirements, 134 4.3 Specimen Fabrication, 141 4.4 Input Motion, 148 4.5 Instrumentation, 150 4.6 Data Acquisition and Processing, 155 4.7 Results, 157 References, 158 5 Measurements in Environmental Engineering 159 Daniel A. Vallero 5.1 Introduction, 159 5.2 Environmental Sampling Approaches, 166 5.3 Laboratory Analysis, 169 5.4 Measurement Uncertainty, 183 5.5 Measurement Decision Making, 186 5.6 Environmental Indicators, 191 5.7 Extending Measurement Data Using Models, 199 5.8 Summary, 200 Nomenclature, 200 References, 202 6 Hydrology Measurements 205 Todd C. Rasmussen 6.1 Introduction, 206 6.2 Precipitation, 209 6.3 Evapotranspiration, 212 6.4 Surface Flow, 216 6.5 Groundwater, 219 6.6 Soil Water, 223 6.7 Water Quality, 226 Suggested Readings, 231 7 Mobile Source Emissions Testing 233 Mohan Venigalla 7.1 Testing for Regulatory Compliance, 234 References, 240 PART II MECHANICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 241 8 Dimensions, Surfaces, and their Measurement 243 Mikell P. Groover 8.1 Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes, 244 8.2 Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages, 245 8.3 Surfaces, 254 References, 256 9 Mass Properties Measurement 259 David Tellet 9.1 Introduction, 260 9.2 Mass and Weight, 262 9.3 Measurement Methodology, 264 9.4 Weight and Mass Measurement, 274 9.5 Center of Gravity Measurement, 275 9.6 MOI Measurement, 280 9.7 POI Measurement, 284 9.8 Measuring Large Vehicles, 287 9.9 Sources of Uncertainty, 292 References, 300 10 Force Measurement 301 Patrick Collins 10.1 Introduction, 302 10.2 Force Transducers, 303 10.3 Universal Testing Machines, 306 10.4 The Strain Gauge Sensor, 307 10.5 Resonant Element Transducers, 311 10.6 Surface Acoustic Wave Transducers, 314 10.7 Dynamometers, 317 10.8 Optical Force Transducers, 317 10.9 Magneto-Elastic Transducers, 320 10.10 Force Balance Transducers, 321 10.11 Force Transducer Characteristics, 321 10.12 Calibration, 323 10.13 Conclusion, 329 Glossary of Terms, 329 References, 340 11 Resistive Strain Measurement Devices 343 Mark Tuttle 11.1 Preliminary Discussion, 343 11.2 Resistance Metal Strain Gages, 349 11.3 Semiconductor Strain Gages, 363 11.4 Liquid Metal Strain Gages, 365 References, 366 12 Vibration Measurement 367 Sheryl M. Gracewski and Nigel D. Ramoutar 12.1 Introduction, 367 12.2 One-Degree-of-Freedom System Response, 369 12.3 Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems and the Frequency Response Function, 373 12.4 Vibration Measurement Equipment and Techniques, 388 12.5 Experimental Modal Analysis, 405 12.6 Applications of Vibration Measurement, 423 Nomenclature, 428 References, 431 13 Acoustical Measurements 433 Brian E. Anderson, Jonathan D. Blotter, Kent L. Gee, and Scott D. Sommerfeldt 13.1 Introduction, 434 13.2 Fundamental Measures, 436 13.3 Microphones, 445 13.4 Sound Pressure Level Measurements, 451 13.5 Measurement of Sound Isolation, 454 13.6 Room Acoustics Measurements, 457 13.7 Community and Environmental Noise, 463 13.8 Sound Intensity Measurements, 465 13.9 Sound Power Measurements, 472 13.10 Sound Exposure Measurements, 476 References, 479 14 Temperature Measurement 483 Peter R. N. Childs Summary, 484 14.1 Introduction, 484 14.2 Selection, 487 14.3 Invasive Temperature Measurement, 489 14.4 Semi-Invasive Methods, 511 14.5 Noninvasive Methods, 514 14.6 Conclusions, 519 Nomenclature, 519 References, 521 15 Pressure and Velocity Measurements 527 Richard S. Figliola and Donald E. Beasley 15.1 Pressure Concepts, 528 15.2 Pressure Reference Instruments, 530 15.3 Pressure Transducers, 536 15.4 Pressure Transducer Calibration, 543 15.5 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids, 544 15.6 Modeling Pressure and Fluid Systems, 548 15.7 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects, 548 15.8 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems, 552 Nomenclature, 563 References, 564 16 Luminescent Method for Pressure Measurement 567 Gamal E. Khalil, Jim W. Crafton, Sergey D. Fonov, Marvin Sellers, and Dana Dabiri 16.1 Introduction, 567 16.2 Principles of Pressure-Sensitive Paint, 569 16.3 Pressure-Sensitive Luminescent Dyes, 571 16.4 PSP Polymer and Binder, 572 16.5 Measurement Methods, 574 16.6 Pressure-Sensitive Paint Measurements, 588 Acknowledgments, 611 References, 612 17 Flow Measurement 615 Jesse Yoder 17.1 New-Technology and Traditional Technology Flowmeters, 616 17.2 Trends in Flow Measurement, 627 Further Readings, 628 18 Heat Flux Measurement 629 Thomas E. Diller 18.1 Introduction, 630 18.2 Important Issues, 631 18.3 Gages Based on Spatial Temperature Difference, 634 18.4 Gages Based on Temperature Change with Time, 643 18.5 Gages Based on Active Heating Methods, 648 18.6 Calibration and Errors, 653 References, 655 19 Heat Transfer Measurements for Nonboiling Two-Phase Flow 661 Afshin J. Ghajar and Clement C. Tang 19.1 Introduction, 661 19.2 Experimental Setup for Horizontal and Slightly Inclined Pipes, 662 19.3 Instruments for Measurement and Data Acquisition, 666 19.4 Heat Transfer Experiment Procedures, 667 19.5 Verifying the Functionality of the Experimental Setup, 670 19.6 Experimental Results of Two-Phase Flow, 673 19.7 Concluding Remarks, 682 Nomenclature, 683 References, 684 20 Solar Energy Measurements 687 Tariq Muneer and Yieng Wei Tham 20.1 Introduction, 688 20.2 Measurement Equipment, 694 20.3 Equipment Error and Uncertainty, 703 20.4 Operational Errors, 704 20.5 Diffuse Radiation Data Measurement Errors, 704 20.6 Types of Sensors and their Accuracy, 711 20.7 Modern Developments, 711 20.8 Data Quality Assessment, 714 20.9 Statistical Evaluation of Models, 716 20.10 Outlier Analysis, 722 Acknowledgments, 722 References, 723 21 Wind Energy Measurements 727 Peter Gregg 21.1 Introduction, 728 21.2 Concepts, 728 21.3 Measurements, 731 21.4 Evaluation, 739 References, 747 22 Human Movement Measurements 749 Rahman Davoodi 22.1 Introduction, 749 22.2 Characterization of Human Movement, 750 22.3 Optical Motion Capture Systems, 751 22.4 Magnetic Motion Capture Systems, 754 22.5 Inertial Motion Capture Systems, 756 22.6 Discussion, 761 Acknowledgment, 762 References, 762 23 Flow Measurement 765 Arnold A. Fontaine, Keefe B. Manning, and Steven Deutsch 23.1 Introduction, 765 23.2 Flow Measurement Applications, 768 References, 799 PART III INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 803 24 Statistical Quality Control 805 Magd E. Zohdi 24.1 Measurements and Quality Control, 805 24.2 Dimension and Tolerance, 805 24.3 Quality Control, 806 24.4 Interrelationship of Tolerances of Assembled Products, 812 24.5 Operation Characteristic (OC) Curve, 812 24.6 Control Charts for Attributes, 812 24.7 Acceptance Sampling, 815 24.8 Defense Department Acceptance Sampling by Variables, 817 Further Readings, 817 25 Evaluating and Selecting Technology-Based Projects 819 Hans J. Thamhain 25.1 Management Perspective, 819 25.2 Quantitative Approaches, 821 25.3 Qualitative Approaches, 826 25.4 Recommendations, 828 Variables and Abbreviations, 831 References, 831 26 Manufacturing Systems Evaluation 833 Walter W. Olson 26.1 Introduction, 833 26.2 Components of Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing, 834 26.3 Manufacturing Systems, 835 26.4 System Effects on ECM, 838 26.5 Assessment, 840 26.6 Summary, 844 References, 845 27 Measuring Performance of Chemical Process Equipment 847 Alan Cross 27.1 Introduction, 847 27.2 Direct Fired Heater Measurement and Process Control Instrumentation, 848 27.3 Crushing and Grinding Equipment Measurements, 851 References, 858 28 Industrial Energy Efficiency 859 B. Gopalakrishnan, D. P. Gupta, Y. Mardikar, and S. Chaudhari 28.1 Introduction, 860 28.2 Literature Review, 863 28.3 Data Analysis of Energy Efficiency Measures, 864 28.4 Energy Efficiency Measures in Major Energy Consuming Equipment, 872 28.5 Case Studies of Development of Energy-Efficiency Measures, 879 28.6 Conclusion, 881 Acknowledgments, 881 References, 881 29 Industrial Waste Auditing 885 C. Visvanathan 29.1 Overview, 885 29.2 Waste-Minimization Programs, 886 29.3 Waste-Minimization Cycle, 888 29.4 Waste Auditing, 890 29.5 Conclusion, 909 Further Readings, 910 30 Organizational Performance Measurement 911 Jennifer A. Farris, Eileen M. Van Aken, and Geert Letens 30.1 Introduction, 911 30.2 Summary, 940 References, 940 INDEX VOLUME 2 PART IV MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND TESTING 945 31 Viscosity Measurement 947 Ann M. Anderson, Bradford A. Bruno, and Lilla Safford Smith 31.1 Viscosity Background, 947 31.2 Common Units of Viscosity, 949 31.3 Major Viscosity Measurement Methods, 959 31.4 ASTM Standards for Measuring Viscosity, 974 31.5 Questions to Ask When Selecting a Viscosity Measurement Technique, 976 References, 979 32 Tribology Measurements 981 Prasanta Sahoo 32.1 Introduction, 982 32.2 Measurement of Surface Roughness, 983 32.3 Measurement of Friction, 988 32.4 Measurement of Wear, 992 32.5 Measurement of Test Environment, 994 32.6 Measurement of Material Characteristics, 998 32.7 Measurement of Lubricant Characteristics, 1001 32.8 Wear Particle Analysis, 1004 32.9 Industrial Measurements, 1005 32.10 Summary, 1006 33 Corrosion Monitoring 1007 Pierre R. Roberge 33.1 What is Corrosion Monitoring?, 1007 33.2 The Role of Corrosion Monitoring, 1008 33.3 Corrosion Monitoring System Considerations, 1010 References, 1116 34 Surface Properties Measurement 1121 Mrinalini Mulukutla and Sandip P. Harimkar 34.1 Introduction, 1121 34.2 Surface Properties, 1122 34.3 Microstructural Analysis, 1125 34.4 Compositional Analysis, 1128 34.5 Phase Analysis, 1130 34.6 Mechanical Testing, 1131 34.7 Corrosion Properties, 1141 34.8 Standards for Surface Engineering Measurement, 1145 References, 1147 35 Thermal Conductivity of Engineering Materials 1151 Juergen Blumm 35.1 Introduction, 1151 35.2 Stationary Methods for Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity, 1157 35.3 Transient Methods for the Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity, 1163 35.4 Test Results on Various Engineering Materials, 1173 References, 1188 36 Optical Methods for the Measurement of Thermal Conductivity 1189 Prabhakar R. Bandaru and Max S. Aubain 36.1 Thermal Boundary Resistance May Limit Accuracy in Contact-Based Thermal Conductivity (k) Measurements, 1189 36.2 Optical Measurements of k May Avoid Contact-Related Issues, 1192 36.3 Thermoreflectance (TR), 1196 36.4 Characteristics of Thermoreflectance from Si Thin Films—Modeling and Calibration, 1199 36.5 Experimental Procedures, 1202 36.6 Results and Discussion, 1204 36.7 Summary and Outlook, 1208 Acknowledgments, 1209 References, 1209 37 Selection of Metals for Structural Design 1213 Matthew J. Donachie 37.1 Introduction, 1214 37.2 Common Alloy Systems, 1215 37.3 What are Alloys and What Affects their Use?, 1215 37.4 What are the Properties of Alloys and How are Alloys Strengthened?, 1218 37.5 Manufacture of Alloy Articles, 1221 37.6 Alloy Information, 1221 37.7 Metals at Lower Temperatures, 1231 37.8 Metals at High Temperatures, 1233 37.9 Melting and Casting Practices, 1236 37.10 Forging, Forming, Powder Metallurgy, and Joining of Alloys, 1242 37.11 Surface Protection of Materials, 1245 37.12 Postservice Refurbishment and Repair, 1248 37.13 Alloy Selection: A Look at Possibilities, 1249 37.14 Level of Property Data, 1252 37.15 Thoughts on Alloy Systems, 1252 37.16 Selected Alloy Information Sources, 1259 Further Readings, 1261 38 Mechanical Properties of Polymers 1263 Daniel Liu, Jackie Rehkopf, and Maureen Reitman 38.1 Microstructure and Morphology of Polymers—Amorphous Versus Crystalline, 1264 38.2 General Stress–Strain Behavior, 1265 38.3 Viscoelasticity, 1271 38.4 Mechanical Models of Viscoelasticity, 1272 38.5 Time–Temperature Dependence, 1274 38.6 Deformation Mechanisms, 1274 38.7 Crazing, 1277 38.8 Fracture, 1279 38.9 Modifying Mechanical Properties, 1284 38.10 Load-Bearing Applications: Creep, Fatigue Resistance, and High Strain Rate Behavior, 1285 References, 1290 39 Electrical Properties of Polymers 1291 Evaristo Riande and Ricardo Diaz-Calleja 39.1 Introductory Remarks, 1291 39.2 Polarity and Permittivity, 1292 39.3 Measurements of Dielectric Permittivity, 1293 39.4 Polarization and Dipole Moments in Isotropic Systems, 1297 39.5 Thermostimulated Depolarization Currents, 1316 39.6 Conductivity in Polyelectrolytes and Polymer-Electrolytes as Separators for Low Temperature Fuel Cells and Electrical Batteries, 1318 39.7 Semiconductors and Electronic Conducting Polymers, 1324 39.8 Ferroelectricity, Pyroelectricity, and Piezoelectricity in Polymers, 1328 39.9 Nonlinear Polarization in Polymers, 1331 39.10 Elastomers for Actuators and Sensors, 1333 39.11 Electrical Breakdown in Polymers, 1336 References, 1338 40 Nondestructive Inspection 1343 Robert L. Crane and Jeremy S. Knopp 40.1 Introduction, 1344 40.2 Liquid Penetrants, 1347 40.3 Radiography, 1351 40.4 Ultrasonic Methods, 1361 40.5 Magnetic Particle Method, 1370 40.6 Thermal Methods, 1373 40.7 Eddy Current Methods, 1375 References, 1410 41 Testing of Metallic Materials 1413 Peter C. McKeighan 41.1 Mechanical Test Laboratory, 1414 41.2 Tensile and Compressive Property Testing, 1418 41.3 Creep and Stress Relaxation Testing, 1420 41.4 Hardness and Impact Testing, 1422 41.5 Fracture Toughness Testing, 1425 41.6 Fatigue Testing, 1429 41.7 Other Mechanical Testing, 1433 41.8 Environmental Considerations, 1434 Acknowledgments, 1436 References, 1436 42 Ceramics Testing 1437 Shawn K. McGuire and Michael G. Jenkins 42.1 Introduction, 1437 42.2 Mechanical Testing, 1438 42.3 Thermal Testing, 1451 42.4 Nondestructive Evaluation Testing, 1458 42.5 Electrical Testing, 1460 42.6 Summary, 1461 References, 1461 43 Plastics Testing 1463 Vishu Shah 43.1 Introduction, 1464 43.2 Mechanical Properties, 1464 43.3 Thermal Properties, 1481 43.4 Electrical Properties, 1484 43.5 Weathering Properties, 1488 43.6 Optical Properties, 1492 Further Readings, 1496 44 Testing and Instrumental Analysis for Plastics Processing: Key Characterization Techniques 1499 Maria del Pilar Noriega 44.1 FTIR Spectroscopy, 1499 44.2 Chromatography (GC, GC-MSD, GC-FID, and HPLC), 1500 44.3 DSC and Thermogravimetry (TGA), 1510 44.4 Rheometry, 1518 References, 1527 45 Analytical Tools for Estimation of Particulate Composite Material Properties 1529 Tarek I. Zohdi and Magd E. Zohdi 45.1 Introduction, 1529 45.2 Concepts in Statistical Quality Control, 1530 45.3 Effective Property Estimates, 1531 45.4 Summary, 1535 References, 1537 PART V INSTRUMENTATION 1539 46 Instrument Statics 1541 Jerry Lee Hall, Sriram Sundararajan, and Mahmood Naim 46.1 Terminology, 1541 46.2 Static Calibration, 1544 46.3 Statistics in the Measurement Process, 1547 References, 1570 47 Input and Output Characteristics 1573 Adam C. Bell 47.1 Introduction, 1574 47.2 Familiar Examples of Input–Output Interactions, 1575 47.3 Energy, Power, Impedance, 1578 47.4 Operating Point of Static Systems, 1586 47.5 Transforming the Operating Point, 1598 47.6 Measurement Systems, 1602 47.7 Distributed Systems in Brief, 1607 47.8 Concluding Remarks, 1609 References, 1610 48 Bridge Transducers 1611 Patrick L. Walter 48.1 Terminology, 1612 48.2 Flexural Devices in Measurement Systems, 1612 48.3 The Resistance Strain Gage, 1615 48.4 The Wheatstone Bridge, 1625 48.5 Resistance Bridge Balance Methods, 1634 48.6 Resistance Bridge Transducer Measurement System Calibration, 1636 48.7 Resistance Bridge Transducer Measurement System Considerations, 1646 48.8 AC Impedance Bridge Transducers, 1655 References, 1660 Further Readings, 1661 49 Signal Processing 1663 John Turnbull 49.1 Frequency-Domain Analysis of Linear Systems, 1663 49.2 Basic Analog Filters, 1666 49.3 Basic Digital Filter, 1672 49.4 Stability and Phase Analysis, 1680 49.5 Extracting Signal from Noise, 1682 References, 1683 50 Data Acquisition and Display Systems 1685 Philip C. Milliman 50.1 Introduction, 1686 50.2 Data Acquisition, 1687 50.3 Process Data Acquisition, 1688 50.4 Data Conditioning, 1691 50.5 Data Storage, 1699 50.6 Data Display and Reporting, 1704 50.7 Data Analysis, 1707 50.8 Data Communications, 1708 50.9 Other Data Acquisition and Display Topics, 1712 50.10 Summary, 1715 References, 1715 PART VI MEASUREMENT STANDARDS 1517 51 Mathematical and Physical Units, Standards, and Tables 1719 Jack H. Westbrook 51.1 Symbols and Abbreviations, 1720 Bibliography for Letter Symbols, 1731 Bibliography for Graphic Symbols, 1737 51.2 Mathematical Tables, 1742 51.3 Statistical Tables, 1765 51.4 Units and Standards, 1775 Bibliography for Units and Measurements, 1802 51.5 Tables of Conversion Factors, 1802 51.6 Standard Sizes, 1833 51.7 Standard Screws, 1886 52 Measurement Uncertainty 1911 David Clippinger 52.1 Introduction, 1911 52.2 Literature, 1914 52.3 Evaluation of Uncertainty, 1915 52.4 Discussion, 1924 Disclaimer, 1924 References, 1925 53 Measurements 1927 E. L. Hixson and E. A. Ripperger 53.1 Standards and Accuracy, 1927 53.2 Impedance Concepts, 1930 53.3 Error Analysis, 1935 References, 1942 INDEX I-1