Handbook of Catchment Management

List of Contributors xvii Preface xxi Acknowledgements xxiv 1 Introduction to Catchment Management in 2020 3 Robert C. Ferrier and Alan Jenkins 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Historical Synopsis 3 1.3 Recent Developments and Emerging Issues 6 1.3.1 Value of Water 6 1.3.2 Evaluation of the Global Resource 9 1.3.3 Water Scarcity and Drought 11 1.3.4 Emerging Technologies 14 1.3.5 Energy Transition 15 1.3.6 Water Quality 15 1.4 Policy Development 17 1.5 Working with Nature, Natural Capital, and Ecosystem Services 18 1.6 Summary 19 References 20 2 Water Diplomacy 25 Rozemarijn ter Horst 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Short Historical Synopsis 26 2.2.1 What Is Water Diplomacy? 27 2.2.2 Water conflict and cooperation 28 2.3 Current Solutions 28 2.3.1 Who Practises Water Diplomacy? 28 2.3.2 How Is Water Diplomacy Done? 31 2.4 New Insights 37 2.5 Future Knowledge Requirements 38 References 39 3 Water Financing and Pricing Mechanisms 47 Alan D. A. Sutherland and Colin McNaughton 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Short Historical Synopsis 49 3.3 Current Solutions 52 3.3.1 Regulation by Contract (Franchise Regulation) 53 3.3.2 Rate of Return Regulation 53 3.3.3 Incentive-Based Regulation 54 3.3.4 The Regulatory Governance Framework 58 3.4 New Insights 60 3.5 Future Knowledge Requirements 64 References 65 4 Defining ‘Smart Water’ 67 David Lloyd Owen 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Historical Synopsis 69 4.3 Current Solutions 72 4.4 New Insights – The Digital Disruption 73 4.4.1 Adopting New Technologies 73 4.4.2 Decarbonising Water and Wastewater as a Resource 75 4.4.3 Water and Sewerage Metering 76 4.4.4 Demand Management, Tariffs, and Smarter White Goods 77 4.4.5 Sensors 78 4.4.6 ‘Digital’ Water 79 4.4.7 Rural–Urban Interface (New Storage and Green Infiltration) 82 4.5 Future Knowledge Requirements 84 4.6 Discussion and Conclusions 86 References 87 5 Water, Food, and Energy Nexus 93 Alex Smajgl 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Historical Synopsis 94 5.2.1 Nexus Conceptualisations 94 5.2.2 Nexus-Focused Research 96 5.2.3 Nexus-Type Implementations and Case Studies 97 5.2.4 Nexus Interactions and Trade-off Examples 98 5.2.4.1 Hydropower – Fish 98 5.2.4.2 Irrigation – Food Crops – Energy Crops 99 5.2.4.3 Energy Pricing – Irrigated Agriculture – Availability of Surface and Groundwater 99 5.2.4.4 Desalinisation – Energy Costs – Water Supply 100 5.3 Current Solutions 100 5.3.1 Sustainability and Nexus Outcomes 100 5.3.2 Different Types of Water 102 5.3.3 Intervention Points to ‘Manage the Nexus’ 103 5.3.4 Research Solutions for Improved Trade-off Assessments 104 5.3.5 Innovative Engagement Processes to Steer Cross-Sector Dialogue 108 5.4 New Insights 110 5.5 Future Knowledge Requirements 112 References 114 6 Groundwater Management 125 Stephen Foster and Alan MacDonald 6.1 Introduction 125 6.1.1 Importance of Groundwater Storage 125 6.1.2 Dynamics of Groundwater Flow Systems 126 6.1.3 Evaluation of Groundwater Recharge 128 6.1.4 Processes of Groundwater Quality Degradation 129 6.1.5 Aquifer Pollution Vulnerability and Quality Protection 132 6.2 Groundwater Management – Needs and Approaches 133 6.2.1 Impacts of Groundwater Resource Development 133 6.2.2 Surface-Water Impacts of Ineffective Management 135 6.2.3 Key Components of Groundwater Resources Management 135 6.2.3.1 Demand vs. Supply Side Interventions 135 6.2.3.2 Identifying Links with the Rest of the Water Cycle 136 6.2.3.3 Climate Change 137 6.2.3.4 Irrigation 137 6.2.4 Approaches to Groundwater Quality Protection 138 6.2.4.1 Potential Polluter Pays for Protection 138 6.2.4.2 Groundwater-Friendly Rural Land Use 139 6.2.5 Need for Adaptive and Precautionary Management 140 6.3 New Insights 140 6.3.1 Evolving Paradigm of Sound Governance 140 6.3.2 Integrated Policy to Strengthen Governance 142 6.3.2.1 Vertical Integration Within the Water Sector 142 6.3.2.2 Horizontal Integration Beyond the Water Sector 143 6.3.3 Conjunctive Use of Groundwater and Surface Water 143 6.3.4 Groundwater Management Planning 145 Acknowledgements 148 References 149 7 Diffuse Pollution Management 153 Andrew Vinten 7.1 Introduction 153 7.1.1 Attributes of Diffuse Pollution 154 7.2 Historical synopsis: Challenges for diffuse pollution management 155 7.2.1 Recognition of Diffuse Pollution as an Issue 155 7.2.2 Identification of Sources of Diffuse Pollution 159 7.2.3 Development of Programmes of Measures to Combat Diffuse Pollution 161 7.3 Current solutions 162 7.3.1 Evidence of Effectiveness of Measures 162 7.3.2 Appropriateness of Measures in Specific Contexts 166 7.3.3 The Role of Governance and Other Factors in Effecting Behaviour Change 167 7.4 A Way Forward? 169 References 174 8 Emerging Contaminants and Pollutants of Concern 183 Pei Wang and Yonglong Lu 8.1 Introduction 183 8.2 Short Historical Synopsis 186 8.2.1 Pollution Pathways 186 8.2.2 Life Cycle Analysis 188 8.2.3 Flows in Waste Management 189 8.2.4 Storage in the Environment 189 8.2.5 Alternatives or Mitigation Technologies for PFOA/PFO 190 8.3 Current Solutions 190 8.4 New Insights 191 8.4.1 Multi‐contaminants: Improved Risk Ranking 191 8.4.2 Heavy Metals 191 8.4.3 Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals 193 8.4.4 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 194 8.4.5 Persistent Organic Pollutants 194 8.4.6 What Is the Balance of the Cost from Production, Monitoring to Remediation of Emerging Pollutants? 196 8.4.7 What Is the Balance of the Attitude Among Different Stakeholders Including Government, Industry, Academia, and Public? 197 8.4.8 Government 197 8.4.9 Industry 198 8.4.10 Academia 199 8.4.11 Public 199 8.5 Future Knowledge Requirements 199 8.5.1 Regulations on the Production‐Demand Chain to Help Develop Low‐Toxicity Substitutes 199 8.5.2 Highly Efficient Methods to Remove the Pollutants in Various Wastes 200 8.5.3 Develop Specific Criteria and Standards for More Effective Risk Assessment and Environmental Management 200 8.5.4 Ecosystem‐Based Management for Prevention from Environmental Impacts of Emerging Pollutants 201 References 201 9 Flood Management 205 Mark Fletcher 9.1 Introduction 205 9.1.1 The Water Cycle and Flooding 205 9.2 Historical Synopsis and Current Understanding 208 9.2.1 Flood Warning 208 9.2.2 UK Overview 208 9.2.3 Legislative Framework 209 9.2.4 Resilience to Flooding 209 9.2.5 Flood Categorisation 210 9.3 Current Solutions 213 9.3.1 Coping with Extreme Flooding 213 9.3.2 How to Cope (in Advance of a Major Flood Event) 213 9.3.3 Flood Asset Management 214 9.4 New Insights 214 9.4.1 Case Studies: (A) Leeds Flood Alleviation Scheme, Leeds, UK 214 9.4.1.1 Scheme Development 214 9.4.1.2 Digital Construction and Collaboration 215 9.4.1.3 Replacing the Weirs 215 9.4.1.4 Linear Defences in the City Centre 216 9.4.1.5 Eliminating Another Barrier 216 9.4.1.6 Integrated Urban Drainage Model 216 9.4.1.7 The Cutting Edge 216 9.4.2 Case Studies: (B) Skipton Flood Alleviation Scheme, Skipton, UK 221 9.4.2.1 The Short- and Long-Term Benefits from a Sustainable Development Perspective 224 9.4.2.2 Economic Benefits 224 9.4.2.3 Environmental Benefits 225 9.4.2.4 Social Benefits 225 9.4.2.5 Cutting Edge Aspects 225 9.4.2.6 Transferability – A Model for Work Elsewhere 226 9.4.2.7 Planning Impact on the Scheme 227 9.4.2.8 The Role of SMART Design in Flood Management 228 9.4.2.9 SMART Control 229 9.4.2.10 Automatic PLC Control 230 9.4.2.11 3D Modelling 230 9.4.3 Case Studies: (C) Connswater Community Greenway, Belfast, UK 233 9.4.4 Case Studies: (D) Freckleton Floodbank Breach, River Ribble, Lancashire, UK 233 9.4.4.1 Introduction 233 9.4.4.2 Possible Reasons for the Failure of the Embankment 237 9.4.4.3 Good Working Practice 239 9.5 Future Challenges 241 9.5.1 Climate Change – A Global Perspective 241 9.5.2 Population and Urbanisation 242 9.5.3 Digital 242 9.5.4 Nature Based Solutions (NBS) 242 References 243 10 Ecological Restoration 245 Laurence Carvalho, Iain D. M. Gunn, Bryan M. Spears, and Anne J. Dobel 10.1 Introduction 245 10.2 Short Historical Synopsis 246 10.2.1 Restoration Success (or Lack of It) 246 10.2.2 Timescales in Ecological Recovery 249 10.3 Target-Setting, Monitoring, and Assessment 250 10.4 Current Restoration Approaches 250 10.4.1 Rivers 251 10.4.2 Environmental Flows 252 10.4.3 Lakes 254 10.4.3.1 Biomanipulation 255 10.4.3.2 Artificial Mixing and Aeration 256 10.4.3.3 Chemical Treatment 256 10.4.3.4 Sediment Removal 257 10.4.3.5 Short-Term Mitigation of Harmful Algal Blooms – Poorly Evidenced Lake Restoration Methods 257 10.4.4 Ponds 258 10.5 New Insights, Innovation, and Knowledge Gaps 259 10.5.1 Circular Economies – Resource Recovery 259 10.5.2 Nature-Based Solutions and Payment for Ecosystem Services 260 10.5.3 Building Climate Change Resilience 260 10.5.4 Developing a Systemic Approach and Re-wilding 262 References 263 11 Water, Sanitation, and Health: Progress and Obstacles to Achieving the SDGs 271 Emmanuel M. Akpabio and John S. Rowan 11.1 Introduction 271 11.2 Theoretical and Historical Basis of Water, Sanitation, and Health Nexus 273 11.3 Understanding Current WaSH Management Practices in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case of Nigeria and Malawi 278 11.4 Understanding the Challenges Associated with Achieving Improved WaSH Services Delivery for Sub-Saharan Africa 296 11.5 Key Insights, Lessons, and Future Knowledge 299 11.5.1 A Lack of Nexus Approach 300 11.5.2 Governance Challenge and Poor Institutional Capacities 301 11.5.3 Cultural and Religious Values 301 11.5.4 Excessive Influence of External Actors and Agencies 303 11.5.5 Prioritising and Strengthening Catchment-Based Management Approach to WaSH Services Delivery 303 11.5.6 Climate Change Impact and Access to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene 304 Acknowledgements 305 References 305 12 The Legal and Institutional Framework for Basin Management Across Governance Levels 309 Susanne Schmeier 12.1 Introduction 309 12.2 The Conceptual Framework – Legal and Institutional Dimensions of River Basin Management 311 12.2.1 From Local to Transboundary – A Level Perspective on River Basin Management 311 12.2.2 The River Basin Management Cycle 314 12.2.3 Combining the Level and the Cyclical Approach 315 12.3 From Concept to Practice – The (Mal-)Functioning of Legal and Institutional Frameworks 316 12.3.1 River Basin Management in Europe – High Complexity 316 12.3.1.1 The Rhine River Basin – A High Density of Legal and Institutional Instruments 316 12.3.1.2 The Danube River Basin – Complex Management Mechanisms for a Complex Basin 321 12.3.2 River Basin Management Across Levels in the Mekong River Basin – A Patchy Framework 323 12.3.3 River Basin Management in Southern Africa – Increasing Integration in the Orange River Basin 327 12.4 Conclusions 331 References 332 13 Scotland the ‘Hydro Nation’: Linking Policy, Science, Industry, Regulation in Scotland and Internationally 339 Barry Greig and Jon Rathjen 13.1 Introduction 339 13.2 Scotland’s Water Environment 339 13.3 Industry Vision 341 13.4 Scotland: The Hydro Nation 341 13.5 Value 343 13.6 Hydro Nation: Strategy and Structure 343 13.7 Hydro Nation Strategy: National Theme 346 13.8 Water Supply and Demand Management 347 13.9 Private Supplies and Rural Provision 347 13.10 Regulation and Governance 348 13.11 Hydro Nation Strategy: International Theme 349 13.12 Scotland and Malawi 350 13.13 Hydro Nation Strategy: Knowledge Theme 352 13.14 Hydro Nation Strategy: Innovation Theme 352 13.15 Hydro Nation Impact 353 13.16 Emerging Policy Issues for Scotland 355 References 357 14 Yorkshire Integrated Catchment Solutions Programme (iCASP): A New Model for Research-Based Catchment Management 359 Janet C. Richardson, Marie Ferré, Benjamin L. Rabb, Jennifer C. Armstrong, Julia Martin-Ortega, David M. Hodgson, Thomas D. M Willis, Richard Grayson, Poppy Leeder, and Joseph Holden 14.1 Introduction 359 14.2 Study Area: River Ouse Drainage Basin, Yorkshire 360 14.2.1 Catchment Challenges 361 14.3 The iCASP Model 364 14.3.1 Partnership Working 364 14.3.2 Principles of Working 369 14.3.3 Project Development Process 369 14.3.3.1 Outputs 373 14.3.4 Impact Tracking 374 14.3.5 The Network 376 14.4 New Insights and Highlights 376 14.5 Conclusions 380 Acknowledgements 380 References 380 15 Integrated Management in Singapore 385 Cecilia Tortajada and Rachel Yan Ting Koh 15.1 Introduction 385 15.2 Institutional and Legal Frameworks 386 15.3 Overall Policy and Planning 388 15.4 The Search for Alternative Sources of Water 389 15.5 NEWater: From Concept to Implementation 393 15.6 NEWater: Water Source Looking to the Future 396 15.7 Final Thoughts: Public Engagement, Education, and Outreach Strategies to Promote Acceptance 400 References 401 16 Flood and Drought Emergency Management 409 Miaomiao Ma and Song Han 16.1 Severe Flooding on the Huai River in 2007 409 16.1.1 Introduction 409 16.1.2 Background Hydrological Situation 409 16.1.3 Challenges 412 16.1.4 Current Approach to Meeting the Challenges 413 16.1.5 Lessons Learned 414 16.1.5.1 Leave the Flood More Space 414 16.1.5.2 Optimise Flood Control Regulations 415 16.1.5.3 Moderating Flood Risks 415 16.1.6 Future Work 415 16.2 Severe Drought in South-west Region of China in 2010 416 16.2.1 Introduction and Background 416 16.2.2 Challenges 418 16.2.3 Current Approach to Meeting the Challenges 420 16.2.4 Recovery After the Drought Event 423 16.2.5 Lessons Learned 424 16.2.6 Future Work 426 References 426 17 The River Chief System in China 429 Tan Xianqiang 17.1 Introduction 429 17.1.1 Components of the RCS 430 17.2 Short Historical Synopsis 432 17.3 Current Solutions 433 17.3.1 RCS on the Chishui River as a Demonstration 433 17.3.2 New Insights 434 17.4 Future Knowledge Requirements 438 Acknowledgement 439 18 Water Resources Management in the Colorado River Basin 441 Alan Butler, Terrance Fulp, James Prairie, and Amy Witherall 18.1 Introduction and Background 441 18.1.1 Geography and Hydrology 442 18.1.2 Legal and Policy Framework 444 18.2 Current Challenge – Imbalance of Water Supply and Demand 450 18.3 Recent Approaches to Meeting Challenges 452 18.3.1 The Collaborative, Incremental Approach 452 18.3.2 Interim Surplus Guidelines and California ‘4.4 Plan’ 453 18.3.3 2007 Interim Guidelines 455 18.3.4 Minutes 319 and 323 455 18.3.5 Drought Contingency Plans in the United States and Mexico 457 18.3.6 Reclamation’s Role 458 18.4 Future Thoughts and Considerations 459 References 460 19 Development in the Northern Rivers of Australia 465 Ian Watson, Andrew Ash, Cuan Petheram, Marcus Barber, and Chris Stokes 19.1 Introduction 465 19.2 Context for Northern Development 468 19.3 Biophysical Characteristics and Constraints 475 19.3.1 Physiography, Climate, and Hydrology 476 19.3.1.1 Surface Water – Groundwater Connectivity 478 19.3.2 Environment and Ecology 480 19.3.3 Potential Impacts and Their Management 481 19.4 Catchment Governance and Management 483 19.4.1 Roles and Responsibilities of Government in Managing Catchments 483 19.4.2 Commonwealth Government 483 19.4.3 State and Territory Government 484 19.4.4 Statutory Bodies with a Role in Catchment Management 485 19.4.5 Community Organisations, Emerging Voices 485 19.4.6 The Role of Indigenous People in Catchment Management 485 19.4.7 Development Agendas and the Protection of the Natural and Cultural Values of Northern Australian Rivers 486 19.5 Development Opportunities 487 19.5.1 Background 487 19.5.2 Land and Water Resources 487 19.5.2.1 Soils and Land Suitability 487 19.5.2.2 Surface and Groundwater 488 19.5.3 Primary Production Opportunities 488 19.6 Conclusions 489 Acknowledgements 490 References 490 20 Catchment Management of Lake Simcoe, Canada 499 Jill C. Crossman 20.1 Introduction to the Lake Simcoe Case Study: A History of Problems 499 20.2 History of Pollution 501 20.2.1 Point Sources 502 20.2.2 Diffuse Sources 502 20.2.3 Direct Sources to the Lake 505 20.3 History of Management of Lake Simcoe 506 20.3.1 Implementation of Catchment Management Principles 507 20.4 Management Achievements 510 20.4.1 Reductions in Phosphorus Loadings 510 20.4.2 Point Source Reductions – Sewage Treatment 511 20.4.3 Diffuse Source Reductions 512 20.4.4 Septic Systems 512 20.4.5 Urban Run-off 513 20.4.6 Fertilisers 515 20.4.7 Livestock 516 20.4.8 Soil Erosion 516 20.4.9 Wetland Drainage (Polders) 517 20.4.10 Improvements in Lake Water Quality 518 20.4.11 Management Impacts on Fish Stocks 520 20.5 Future Implications 522 20.5.1 Land Use and Population Change 522 20.5.2 Climate Change 524 20.6 Conclusion 526 References 527 21 Management of Water Resources on the Han River, Korea 533 Hwirin Kim 21.1 Introduction 533 21.2 Short Historical Synopsis 535 21.2.1 Dams, Weirs, Reservoirs, and Related Institutions in the Han River Basin 535 21.2.2 The Dam and Weir Conjunctive Operation Council 538 21.3 Current Issues 539 21.3.1 Flooding in 2006 539 21.3.2 Drought in 2016–2018 542 21.3.3 Dam Water Use for River Water Quality Improvement-2018 543 21.4 Future Challenges 546 22 Dispute Resolution in the Cauvery Basin, India 549 Neha Khandekar and Veena Srinivasan 22.1 Introduction 549 22.1.1 Background 549 22.1.2 The Cauvery Water Conflict 552 22.2 History of the Dispute 553 22.2.1 Colonial Times 553 22.2.2 Post‐independence Origins of Inter‐State Dispute (1974–1990) 555 22.2.3 Tribunal Process (1990–2007) 555 22.2.4 Different States Have Different Positions About Principles 556 22.2.4.1 Karnataka’s Position 556 22.2.4.2 Tamil Nadu’s Position 557 22.2.5 2007 Agreement 558 22.2.5.1 Principles of Allocation 558 22.2.5.2 Surface Water Allocation 558 22.2.5.3 Groundwater Allocation 558 22.2.5.4 Environmental Flow 560 22.2.5.5 Release Schedule 560 22.2.6 Post‐tribunal Conflicts (2007–2018) 561 22.2.7 The 2018 Verdict 561 22.3 Analysis of the Cauvery Dispute 562 22.3.1 Problems with Scientific Basis of Tribunal Allocation 563 22.3.1.1 Premise of Allocation Is Flawed 563 22.3.1.2 No Guidance on Shortage Sharing in Drought Years 564 22.3.1.3 No Clarity on Wastewater Ownership 564 22.3.2 Data Gaps 564 22.3.2.1 Sparse Data on Water Availability 564 22.3.2.2 Inconsistent and Inadequate Data on Agricultural Water Use 565 22.3.2.3 Data on ‘Green Water’ and Evapotranspiration Is Unavailable 565 22.3.2.4 Data on Urban Water Use Is Fragmented 566 22.3.2.5 Inadequate Public Information on Water Infrastructure Plans 566 22.3.2.6 Missing Data on Water Infrastructure Operations 566 22.3.2.7 Reservoir Sedimentation Is Not Accounted for 566 22.3.2.8 Water Quality Data Are Inadequate 567 22.4 Science–Policy Gaps 567 22.4.1 Changing Nature of Demand and Supply 568 22.5 Political Challenges 569 22.5.1 Identity Politics 569 22.5.2 Poor Public Communication 569 22.6 Dispute Resolution Approaches 569 22.6.1 Cauvery Management Board 570 22.6.2 Direct Dialogue 571 22.7 Summary and Way Forward 571 Acknowledgements 573 References 573 23 The Future for Catchment Management 579 Alan Jenkins and Robert C. Ferrier 23.1 Climate Change 579 23.2 Biodiversity 580 23.3 Land Use 581 23.4 Coasts 582 23.5 Ecosystem Goods and Services 582 23.6 People and Management 583 23.7 Science 584 23.8 Challenges for the Next Decade 585 References 585 Index 589