Guide to European Compressors and their Applications

"1 Basic principles and compressor types 1; 1.1 Gas laws and gas properties 3; 1.1.1 Thermodynamic laws and basic gas laws 3; 1.1.2 Continuity, Bernoulli's equation, momentum and energy equation 4; 1.1.2.1 The continuity equation 4; 1.1.2.2 Bernoulli's equation 4; 1.1.2.3 The momentum equation 5; 1.1.2.4 The energy equation 6; 1.1.3 Pipe flow losses 7; 1.1.3.1 Reynolds Number 7; 1.1.3.2 Head losses in straight pipes 7; 1.1.3.3 Head losses in fittings 8; 1.1.3.4 Hydraulic diameter 8; 1.1.3.5 Total head losses in the pipe system 8; 1.1.4 Perfect and real gases 9; 1.1.5 Diagrams of gas properties 14; 1.1.6 Properties of mixtures 15; 1.1.6.1 Mean molar mass 17; 1.1.6.2 Effective value of the gas constant 17; 1.1.6.3 Mean molar specific heat 17; 1.1.6.4 Isentropic exponent of the mixture 17; 1.1.6.5 Compressibility of the gas mixture 17; 1.1.6.4 Mixture specific volume 18; 1.1.7 Mass / volume relationship 18; 1.1.8 Principles of compression 18; 1.1.9 Polytropic head 19; 1.1.10 Polytropic efficiency 20; 1.1.11 Power consumption 20; 1.2 Basic compressor types 20; 1.2.1 Types of compressors 20; 1.2.1.1 Rotodynamic compressors 20; 1.2.1.2 Positive displacement compressors 20; 1.2.2 Compressor terminology and abbreviations 21; 1.3 General aspects of rotodynamic compressors 31; 1.3.1 Jet compressors 31; 1.3.2 Rotodynamic compressors 32; 1.3.3 Surge and stonewall in rotodynamic compressors 35; 1.4 General aspects of positive displacement compressors 35; 1.4.1 Basic principles 35; 1.4.2 Ideal compression processes 36; 1.4.3 Real compression process 36; 1.4.4 Mechanical work input 36; 1.5 System characteristics and operating points 37; 1.6 Multi-staging and intercooling 38; 2 Centrifugal compressors - construction and design 39; 2.1 General 40; 2.2 Construction 40; 2.2.1 Impellers 40; 2.2.2 Diffusers 41; 2.2.3 Multi-staging 41; 2.2.4 Intercoolers 41; 2.2.5 Compressor casings 42; 2.2.6 Shaft and impeller arrangements 45; 2.2.6.1 ""Overhung"" design 45; 2.2.6.2 Straight-through design 45; 2.2.6.3 Integrally-geared compressor 46; 2.2.7 Multi-casing / driver configurations 48; 2.2.8 Materials 49; 2.3 Number of compression groups, number of stages per group and power consumption 51; 2.3.1 General 51; 2.3.2 Number of compression groups 51; 2.3.3 Number of impellers per group 55; 2.3.4 Power consumption 56; 2.4 Operating problems 57; 2.4.1 Speed limits 57; 2.4.2 Aerodynamic instability 57; 2.4.3 Rotating stall 58; 3 Axial-flow compressors - construction and design 59; 3.1 General 60; 3.2 Construction 62; 3.2.1 Rotors 62; 3.2.2 Stators 63; 3.2.3 Materials 63; 3.2.4 Variable geometry, multi-staging and blow-off valves 63; 3.3 Number of compression groups, number of stages per group and power consumption 63; 3.3.1 Number of compression groups 64; 3.3.2 Number of stages per group 64; 3.3.3 Power consumption 64; 3.4 Operating problems 64; 3.4.1 Blade vibration 65; 3.4.2 Surging 65; 3.4.3 Rotating stall 65; 4 Reciprocating compressors - construction and design 67; 4.1 General 68; 4.2 Construction 69; 4.2.1 Basic layouts 69; 4.2.2 Piston and piston rod sealing 74; 4.2.3 Valves 75; 4.2.4 Pulsation dampers 75; 4.2.5 Materials 76; 4.3 Number of compression stages, cylinders per stage and cylinder size 77; 4.3.1 Number of compression stages 77; 4.3.2 Compressor speed and piston speed and stroke relationships 81; 4.3.3 Number of cylinders and cylinder size 81; 5 Rotary positive displacement compressors - construction and design 85; 5.1 General 86; 5.2 Screw compressors 86; 5.2.1 Description and operating principle 86; 5.2.2 Performance and liquid injection 87; 5.3 Roots blowers 88; 5.4 Single-lobe compressors 89; 5.5 Sliding vane compressors 89; 5.6 Liquid ring compressors 90; 5.7 Scroll compressors 90; 6 Capacity regulation 93; 6.1 General 94; 6.2 Recycle by-pass control 94; 6.3 Discharge control 95; 6.4 ""On/off"" control 95; 6.5 Variable speed control 96; 6.6 Suction control 98; 6.7 Clearance pockets 99; 6.8 Step-wise control 99; 6.8.1 General 99; 6.8.2 Three step control 100; 6.8.3 Five step control 100; 6.8.4 Multi-cylinder compressors 100; 6.9 Variable geometry 100; 7 Protection systems 103; 7.1 General 104; 7.2 Liquid carry-over prevention 104; 7.3 Over-pressure protection 105; 7.4 Reverse flow protection 105; 7.5 Anti-surge protection 106; 7.6 Air dryers 107; 8 Compressor drivers 109; 8.1 General 110; 8.2 Electric motor drives 110; 8.2.1 Fixed-speed motors 110; 8.2.1.1 Torque-speed characteristics 110; 8.2.1.2 Direct-on-line starting 112; 8.2.1.3 Star-delta starting 112; 8.2.1.4 Autotransformer starting 113; 8.2.1.5 Soft starting 113; 8.2.1.6 PWM variable-speed starting 113; 8.2.2 Variable speed drives 114; 8.2.3 Current pulsations with reciprocating compressor electric motor drives 114; 8.2.3.1 General 114; 8.2.3.2 Torque and speed variations 115; 8.2.3.3 Torque and current pulsations 116; 8.2.3.4 Synchronous motors 117; 8.3 Steam turbines 118; 8.4 Gas turbines 118; 8.5 Turbo-expanders 121; 8.6 Internal combustion engines 123; 9 Bearings and seals 125; 9.1 Bearings 126; 9.1.1 General 126; 9.1.2 Bearing and shaft problems in rotodynamic compressors 126; 9.1.3 Bearing problems in reciprocating compressors 128; 9.1.4 Bearing lubrication and life 129; 9.1.4.1 Grease lubrication 129; 9.1.4.2 Oil lubrication 130; 9.1.4.3 Bearing life 131; 9.1.5 Special bearings 132; 9.2 Process seals 133; 9.2.1 General 133; 9.2.2 Conventional seals 133; 9.2.3 Dry gas seals 134; 9.2.3.1 Aerodynamic instability 137; 10 Testing 139; 10.1 Why test? 140; 10.2 Types of tests 140; 10.3 Conformity tests 140; 10.4 Integrity tests 140; 10.5 Operating tests 140; 10.6 Performance tests 141; 10.7 Recommended tests 142; 11 Installation 143; 11.1 General 144; 11.1.1 Process and maintenance considerations 144; 11.1.2 Noise and vibration 145; 11.1.2.1 The need for noise control 145; 11.1.2.2 Noise from compressors 145; 11.1.2.3 Noise from drivers and power transmission elements 145; 11.1.2.4 Vibration 146; 11.1.2.5 Reciprocating machines 147; 11.1.3 Compressors for potentially hazardous areas 147; 11.1.3.1 Area classification 147; 11.1.3.2 Contribution of compressors to area classification 147; 11.1.3.3 Equipment restrictions 147; 11.1.3.4 Legislation 148; 11.2 Installation configurations 148; 11.3 Mountings 149; 11.3.1 ""Centre-line"" mounting 149; 11.3.2 Baseplates and foundations 150; 11.4 Couplings 151; 11.5 Gearboxes 154; 11.5.1 General 154; 11.5.2 Parallel shaft gears 154; 11.5.3 Planetary type gears 155; 11.5.4 Gear standards 156; 11.6 Alignment 156; 11.7 Main plpe connections 156; 11.8 Liquid carry-over prevention systems 157; 11.9 Service air systems 158; 12 Inspection and maintenance 161; 12.1 Pre-delivery inspection 162; 12.1.1 Transportation and storage 162; 12.2 Maintenance 162; 12.2.1 General 162; 12.2.2 Scheduled maintenance 164; 12.2.3 Opportunistic maintenance 165; 12.2.4 Condition-based maintenance 165; 12.2.5 Breakdown maintenance 165; 12.2.6 Recommended maintenance strategies 165; 12.2.7 Centrifugal and axial-flow compressors 165; 12.2.8 Reciprocating compressors 165; 12.3 Condition monitoring 166; 12.3.1 General 166; 12.3.2 Rotodynamic compressors 167; 12.3.3 Reciprocating compressors 167; 12.3.4 Rotary type (valve-less) positive displacement compressors 168; 13 Compressor selection 169; 13.1 General procedure 170; 13.2 Compressor type selection 172; 13.3 Driver selection 176; 13.3.1 Centrifugal or axial-flow compressors 176; 13.3.2 Reciprocating compressors 176; 13.4 Useful reference specifications 177; 13.4.1 Quality standards 177; Why quality standards are needed? 177; The content of quality standards 178; 13.4.2 Available specifications 178; 13.4.3 Testing standards 179; 13.4.4 Safety standards 179; 13.4.5 Dimensional standards 179; 13.4.6 Material standards 179; 14 Typical compressor applications 181; 14.1 General 182; 14.2 ""Oil & Gas"" Processes 182; 14.2.1 Gas treating for removal of CO2, H2S, COS and mercaptans 182; 14.2.2 Recovery and purification of carbon monoxide for use as a chemical feedstock 182; 14.2.3 Recovery of elemental sulphur from sour gas 183; 14.2.4 Cryogenic gas fractionation used to recover C3 or C2 and higher components 184; 14.2.5 Carbon dioxide recovery and purification by cryogenics 184; 14.2.6 An improved Claus sulphur recovery unit 185; 14.3 Dairy products applications 185; 14.3.1 Chilled water 185; 14.4 Food processing applications 187; 15 Gas properties and other data 189; 15.1 Thermodynamic properties of gases 191; 15.1.1 General gas and vapour data 191; 15.1.2 Table of physical constants 193; 15.1.3 Notes and references to Table of physical constants 196; 15.2 Pressure/enthalpy charts 201; 15.2.1 Nitrogen 201; 15.2.2 Carbon dioxide 202; 15.2.3 Methane 203; 15.2.4 Ethane 204; 15.2.5 Ethylene 205; 15.2.6 Propane 206; 15.2.7 Propylene 207; 15.2.8 Iso-butane 208; 15.2.9 Normal-butane 209; 15.2.10 Iso-pentane 210; 15.2.11 Normal pentane 211; 15.2.12 Oxygen 212; 15.3 Units and conversions 213; 15.3.1 SI, The International System of Units 213; 15.3.2 Conversion factors for SI units 214; 15.3.2.1 Plane angle 214; 15.3.2.2 Length 214; 15.3.2.3 Area 214; 15.3.2.4 Volume 215; 15.3.2.5 Time 215; 15.3.2.6 Linear velocity 215; 15.3.2.7 Linear acceleration 215; 15.3.2.8 Angular velocity 215; 15.3.2.9 Angular acceleration 215; 15.3.2.10 Mass 215; 15.3.2.11 Density 216; 15.3.2.12 Force 216; 15.3.2.13 Torque 216; 15.3.2.14 Pressure, stress 216; 15.3.2.15 Dynamic viscosity 216; 15.3.2.16 Kinematic viscosity 216; 15.3.2.17 Energy 217; 15.3.2.18 Power 217; 15.3.2.19 Volume flow 217; 15.3.2.20 Temperature 218; 15.3.3 Other conversion factors 218; 15.3.3.1 Hardness 218; 15.3.3.2 Material toughness 219; 15.3.4 Normal quantities and units used within compressor technology 219; 16 Useful terms translated 221; 17 Classification guide to manufacturers and suppliers 233; 17.1 Introduction 234; 17.2 Names and addresses - manufacturers and suppliers 235; 17.3 Compressor types - manufacturers and suppliers 248; 17.4 Ancillary Products and services - manufacturers and suppliers 258; 17.5 Trade names - manufacturers and suppliers 261; 18 Reference Index 263; Index to Advertisers 272; Acknowledgements 272"