Discover the latest in fiber optic sensors and their applications in this new edition
Fiber-optic sensors are a powerful class of sensor that uses high-bandwidth optical fibers to convey a large amount of measured information through a single fiber. The advantages of such a mode of measurement are clear: they are intrinsically safe in explosive environments (no sparks), lightweight, compact, robust, and potentially inexpensive. As a result, their uses are manifold for a wide range of physical and chemical phenomena including temperature, strain, pressure, acoustic fields, position, velocity, rotation, acceleration, electrical current, liquid level, biochemical composition, and chemical concentration.
Fiber Optic Sensors introduces and familiarizes the reader with a broad range of fiber optic sensor techniques and applications. The latest edition of this popular text builds upon the sound introductions to the fundamentals of the topic provided by earlier editions by introducing the latest technologies that have been developed in recent years. Gathering the latest research and publications on the subject in one place, the book provides a comprehensive look at fiber optic sensors with an eye to what’s new in the field.
Readers of Fiber Optic Sensors’ third edition will also find:
An exploration of the technology within new applications in areas such as aerospace, defense, oil and gas, medical, electric power, manufacturing, environmental, and robotics Updated chapters on the emergence of interferometric sensors, distributed sensing, and critical components A new and fully-updated comprehensive index
Fiber Optic Sensors is a useful reference for engineers, scientists, technical managers, as well as advanced undergraduate and graduate students.
ABOUT THE EDITORS xv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xvii PREFACE xix 1 THE EMERGENCE OF FIBER OPTIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGY 1 Eric Udd and William B. Spillman, Jr. 2 OPTICAL FIBERS FOR SENSORS 7 Christopher Emslie 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 What is an Optical Fiber? 9 2.3 Conventional Silica-Based Fiber Fabrication 13 2.4 Types of SOF Used in Fiber Sensors 26 3 LIGHT SOURCES 57 Eric Udd 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Fundamental Properties of Light Sources 57 3.3 Coherence Length 63 3.4 Semiconductor Light Sources 64 3.5 Summary 77 4 OPTICAL DETECTORS 79 William B. Spillman, Jr. 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Theoretical Background 79 4.3 Semiconductor Photodiodes 83 4.4 Avalanche Photodiodes 88 4.5 Noise 88 4.6 Spectral Detection 95 4.7 Summary 98 5 OPTICAL MODULATORS FOR FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 99 Leonard M. Johnson 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Electrooptic Effect 99 5.3 Bulk Modulators 102 5.4 Integrated Optical Modulators 108 5.5 All-Fiber Optical Modulators 122 6 INTENSITY-BASED AND FABRY-PEROT INTERFEROMETER SENSORS 125 Gordon L. Mitchell 6.1 Intensity Sensors 125 6.2 Band-Edge Temperature Sensors 127 6.3 Encoder-Based Position Sensors 129 6.4 Multimode Fabry-Perot Sensors 130 6.5 Single-Mode Fabry-Perot Sensors 134 7 MULTIMODE POLARIZATION SENSORS 139 William B. Spillman, Jr. 7.1 Introduction 139 7.2 Theoretical Background 139 7.3 Sensors Based on the Photoelastic Effect 160 7.4 Sensors Based on Retardation Plates 166 7.5 Development Status of Sensors 172 8 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER AND PASSIVE RING RESONATOR 175 Eric Udd 8.1 Introduction 175 8.2 Brief Overview of Optical Rotation Sensing and the Sagnac Effect 175 8.3 Ring Laser Gyros 180 8.4 Passive Ring Resonator Gyros 183 8.5 Fiber Optic Gyros 187 8.6 Trade-Off Between the Ring Laser, Passive Ring Resonator, and Fiber Optic Interferometer as Rotation Sensors 189 8.7 Environmental Sensing Using the Sagnac Interferometer 192 9 APPLICATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER 201 Eric Udd 9.1 Introduction 201 9.2 Fiber Optic Gyro Development 201 9.3 Derivative Applications of the Sagnac Interferometer 206 9.4 Markets and Conclusion 208 10 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE MACH-ZEHNDER AND MICHELSON INTERFEROMETERS 213 Anthony Dandridge 10.1 Introduction 213 10.2 Principle of Operation 214 10.3 Fiber Interferometer Configurations 235 10.4 Applications 240 10.5 Summary 246 11 FIBER OPTIC INTERFEROMETRIC SENSORS: FROM BASIC RESEARCH TO PRODUCTION 249 Clay Kirkendall and Anthony Dandridge 11.1 Introduction 249 11.2 Signal Fading 250 11.3 Hydrophone Transducer Development 253 11.4 Digital Interferometric Processing 255 11.5 The Path from Research to Production 257 12 DISTRIBUTED AND MULTIPLEXED FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 263 Alan D. Kersey 12.1 Introduction 263 12.2 Distributed Sensing 264 12.3 Basic Principles of Sensor Multiplexing 273 12.4 Interferometric Sensor Multiplexing 277 13 New Technologies in Distributed Fiber Sensors and Their Applications 293 Xiaoyi Bao and Yuan Wang 13.1 Introduction 293 13.2 Introduction of Optical Time Domain Reflectometry and Optical Frequency-Domain Reflectometry for Sensing 294 13.3 Spontaneous Scattering in Optical Fiber 295 13.4 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Rayleigh Scattering 302 13.5 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Brillouin Scattering 316 13.6 Raman Scattering-Based Distributed Sensors 330 13.7 Challenges and Limitations in Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors 333 13.8 Conclusion 334 14 DISTRIBUTED TRANSVERSE FORCE/STRESS SENSING ENABLED BY DISTRIBUTED POLARIZATION ANALYSIS 343 X. Steve Yao 14.1 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Distributed Polarization Crosstalk Analysis in PM Fibers 344 14.2 Transverse Force Sensing Enabled by Frequency Domain Distributed Mueller Matrix Polarimetery 355 14.3 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization Scrambled OFDR 368 14.4 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization OTDR 369 15 FIBER OPTIC SMART STRUCTURES 375 Eric Udd 15.1 Introduction 375 15.2 Fiber Optic Sensor Systems 376 15.3 Applications of Fiber Optic Smart Structures and Skins 385 15.4 Example of the Application of a Fiber Optic Sensor to Smart Structures 388 15.5 Conclusions 393 16 FIBER GRATING SENSORS 397 Eric Udd and Ingrid Udd Scheel 16.1 Introduction 397 16.2 Fabrication of Fiber Grating Sensors 398 16.3 Single-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 401 16.4 Multi-Parameter Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 410 16.5 Triaxial Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 414 16.6 Applications of Multi-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 419 16.7 Summary 446 17 FEMTOSECOND LASER-INDUCED FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENT SENSING 449 Stephen Mihailov 17.1 Introduction 449 17.2 Femtosecond Laser-Induced Index Change Mechanisms 451 17.3 FBG Inscription Techniques with Femtosecond Lasers 454 17.4 Sensing Applications of FS-Laser-Induced FBGS 462 17.5 Summary 471 18 CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 479 Daniele Inaudi 18.1 Introduction: Fiber Optic Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring 479 18.2 Adapting Sensors for Civil Engineering Applications 481 18.3 Bridges 482 18.4 Buildings 486 18.5 Geotechnical Engineering Structures 487 18.6 Tunnels 489 18.7 Dams, Dykes, and Tailings 491 18.8 Conclusions 492 19 FIBER OPTIC SENSING IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY 495 Neal G. Skinner, John L. Maida Jr., and Daniel Stark 19.1 Introduction 495 19.2 Life Cycle of a Well/field 496 19.3 Environmental Conditions in the Oil Field and Risks to Optical Fiber 500 19.4 Downhole Fiber Cables 502 19.5 Drivers for Downhole Sensors 504 19.6 Recent Trends and Challenges 509 19.7 Conclusions 509 20 FIBER OPTIC BIOSENSORS 513 William B. Spillman Jr. 20.1 Introduction 513 20.2 Sensor Classes and Transducer Mechanisms 515 20.3 Biomedical Needs for Fiber Optic Biosensors 518 20.4 Historically Demonstrated Applications 520 20.5 New Sensor Concepts 530 20.6 Summary 542 21 FIBER OPTIC MAGNETIC SENSORS 545 Frank Bucholtz 21.1 Introduction 545 21.2 Faraday Effect Sensors 546 21.3 Magnetostrictive Sensors 554 21.4 Lorentz Force Sensors 569 22 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 573 John W. Berthold III 22.1 Introduction 573 22.2 Background 574 22.3 Temperature Measurement 575 22.4 Pressure Measurement 579 22.5 Fluid-Level Measurement 581 22.6 Flow Measurement 582 22.7 Position Measurement 584 22.8 Vibration Measurement 584 22.9 Chemical Analysis 585 22.10 Current-Voltage Measurement 588 22.11 Important Issues for Industrial Application 589 22.12 Summary 590 References 590 INDEX 593
Eric Udd is President of Columbia Gorge Research, a company he founded in 2005 to promote fiber optic sensor technology. His work in this area since 1977 has involved performance on over 100 projects, 54 patents and over 200 papers. Udd is a Fellow of SPIE, and OSA (Optica). William B. Spillman, Jr. PhD, is an independent R&D consultant and a senior scientist at Columbia Gorge Research. With Eric Udd and others, he helped found the field field of fiber optic sensing in the late 1970’s. He has 46 US patents, 182 publications and 5975 citations (Google Scholar).
