Fast-Charging Infrastructure for Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Preface xii About the Authors xiv Acknowledgments xvi 1 Introduction to Electric Vehicle Fast-Charging Infrastructure 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Fast-Charging Station 4 1.2.1 Power Grid or Grid Power Supply 4 1.2.2 Power Cables 5 1.2.3 Switchgears 8 1.2.4 Distribution Transformer 8 1.2.5 Energy Meters and Power Quality Meters 9 1.2.6 Fast Chargers 10 1.2.7 Plugs and Connectors 10 1.2.7.1 CCS Combo 1 Connector 13 1.2.7.2 CHAdeMO Connector 13 1.2.7.3 Tesla Connectors 14 1.3 Fast-Charging Station Using Renewable Power Sources (RES) 14 1.4 Digital Communication for Fast-Charging Station 17 1.5 Requirements for Fast-Charging Station 19 1.6 Case Study: Public Fast-Charging Station in India 20 1.7 Conclusion 23 References 24 Annexure 1 Photos 26 2 Selection of Fast-Charging Station 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Business Model for Fast-Charging Stations 32 2.3 Location of Fast-Charging Station 33 2.4 Electric Supply for Fast Charging 35 2.5 Availability of Land 36 2.6 Conclusion 37 References 37 3 Business Model and Tariff Structure for Fast-Charging Station 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Business Model 41 3.2.1 Integrated Model 41 3.2.2 Independent Model 42 3.2.3 Selection of Business Model for Fast-Charging Station 43 3.2.4 Fast-Charging Infrastructure and Operating Expenses 44 3.3 Battery Swapping 45 3.4 Tariff Structure 47 3.4.1 Tariff Between Electric Utilities (DISCOMs) and Fast-Charging Stations 47 3.4.2 Tariff Between Fast-Charging Stations and EV Users 47 3.5 Conclusion 48 References 48 4 Batteries for Fast-Charging Infrastructure 51 4.1 Introduction 51 4.2 C-Rating of the Battery 52 4.3 Different Types of Chemistries 53 4.3.1 Li-Ion Family 54 4.3.2 Lead Acid 55 4.3.3 Nickel Family 55 4.3.4 Selection of Battery Chemistry 56 4.4 Batteries Used in EVs in the Market 56 4.5 Conclusion 58 References 58 5 Distribution System Planning 59 5.1 Introduction 59 5.2 Planning for Power and Energy Demand 62 5.3 Planning for Distribution System Feeders and Equipment 71 5.4 Conclusion 81 References 81 6 Electric Distribution for Fast-Charging Infrastructure 83 6.1 Introduction 83 6.2 Major Components of Fast-Charging Station 86 6.3 Design of Fast-Charging Station 86 6.3.1 Single Point of Failure 86 6.3.2 Configuration of Electrical Distribution Considering the Redundancy 88 6.3.2.1 Simple Radial Distribution Scheme for FCS 88 6.3.2.2 Expanded Radial Scheme for FCS 89 6.3.2.3 Primary Selective Scheme for FCS 89 6.3.2.4 Secondary Selective Scheme for FCS 93 6.3.2.5 Primary Loop Scheme for FCS 98 6.3.2.6 Sparing Transformer Configuration for FCS 98 6.3.2.7 Other Configurations for FCS 103 6.4 Conclusion 108 References 108 7 Energy Storage System for Fast-Charging Stations 111 7.1 Introduction 111 7.2 Renewables + ESS 112 7.2.1 Solar PV System without Battery Energy Storage System – Scheme 1 AC Interconnection 113 7.2.2 Solar PV System with Battery Energy Storage System – Scheme 2 AC Interconnection 114 7.2.3 Solar PV System with Battery Energy Storage System – Scheme 3 DC Interconnection 116 7.3 Microgrid with Renewables + ESS 118 7.3.1 Grid-Connected Microgrid for Fast-Charging Stations 119 7.3.2 Standalone Microgrid for Fast-Charging Stations 124 7.4 ESS Modes of Operation 124 7.5 Conclusion 127 References 128 8 Surge Protection Device for Electric Vehicle Fast-Charging Infrastructure 129 8.1 Introduction 129 8.2 Surge Protection for Fast-Charging Stations 132 8.2.1 Surge Protection for Open Locations 132 8.2.2 Surge Protection for Covered Locations 133 8.3 Surge Protection for Underground Locations 136 8.4 Conclusion 137 References 137 9 Power Quality Problems Associated with Fast-Charging Stations 139 9.1 Introduction 139 9.2 Introduction to Power Quality 140 9.3 Power Quality Problems Due to Fast-Charging Stations 142 9.3.1 Impact of Poor Power Quality of Distribution Grid on Fast-Charging Station Loads 143 9.3.2 Impact of Poor Power Quality from the Fast-Charging Station Loads on the Distribution Grid 144 9.4 Analysis of Harmonic Injection into the Distribution System 145 9.4.1 Hand Calculation or Manual Calculation 146 9.4.2 Conducting Field Measurements at the Site 146 9.4.3 Model Calibration 147 9.4.4 Computer Simulation 148 9.5 Analysis of System Resonance Condition 149 9.6 Analysis of Supra-Harmonics 152 9.7 Case Study: Harmonic Measurement of 30 kW DC Fast Charger 152 9.8 Conclusion 161 References 161 10 Standards for Fast-Charging Infrastructure 163 10.1 Introduction 163 10.2 IEC Standards 164 10.2.1 IEC 61851 164 10.2.2 IEC 61980 Electric Vehicle Wireless Power Transfer Systems 166 10.2.3 IEC 62196 Plugs, Socket-Outlets, Vehicle Connectors, and Vehicle Inlets – Conductive Charging of Electric Vehicles 168 10.2.4 IEC TR 62933-2-200 Electrical Energy Storage (EES) Systems – Part 2-200: Unit Parameters and Testing Methods – Case Study of EES Systems Located in EV Charging Station with PV 169 10.2.5 IEC 62893 Charging Cables for Electric Vehicles for Rated Voltages up to and Including 0.6/1 kV 169 10.2.6 IEC 60364-7-722 Low-Voltage Electrical Installations – Part 7-722: Requirements for Special Installations or Locations – Supplies for Electric Vehicles 172 10.3 IEEE Standards 172 10.3.1 IEEE Std 2030.1.1-2021 IEEE Standard for Technical Specifications for a DC Quick and Bidirectional Charger for Use with Electric Vehicles 172 10.3.2 IEEE Std 2836-2021 IEEE Recommended Practice for Performance Testing of Electrical Energy Storage (ESS) System in Electric Charging Stations in Combination with Photovoltaic (PV) 174 10.4 SAE Standards 174 10.4.1 SAE J1772 SAE Electric Vehicle and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler 174 10.4.2 SAE J2894-1 2019 Power Quality Requirements for Plug-In Electric Vehicle Chargers 174 10.5 ISO 17409 Electrically Propelled Road Vehicles – Connection to an External Electric Power Supply – Safety Requirements 175 10.6 CEA Technical Standards in India 176 10.6.1 Technical Standards for Connectivity of the Distributed Generation Resources – February 2019 176 10.6.2 Technical Standards for Measures Relating to Safety and Electric Supply – June 2019 176 10.7 BS 7671-2018 Requirements for Electrical Installations 178 10.8 Conclusion 178 References 179 11 Fast-Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles: Today’s Situation and Future Needs 181 11.1 Batteries 181 11.1.1 Voltage 181 11.1.2 Improvements in Battery Chemistry 181 11.1.3 Standardization of Battery Ratings (Capacity, Voltage, and Dimensions) for Enabling Battery Swapping 183 11.2 Distributed Energy Storage System and Grid-Friendly Charging 185 11.3 Ultrafast Chargers 185 11.4 Interoperable Features 186 11.5 Charging the Vehicle While Driving (Wireless Charging) 186 11.6 Conclusion 187 References 187 12 A Review of the Improved Structure of an Electric Vehicle Battery Fast Charger 189 Mohammad Zand, Mostafa Azimi Nasab, Samaneh Rastgoo, and Morteza Azimi Nasab 12.1 Introduction 189 12.2 Types of Battery Charging 190 12.2.1 Li-Ion Battery Charger Algorithm 191 12.2.2 Constant Voltage–Current Charging Method 191 12.2.3 Constant Current Multilevel Charging Method 192 12.2.4 Method of Incremental Charging 193 12.2.5 Pulse Charging Method 193 12.2.6 Sinusoidal Pulse Charging Algorithm 195 12.2.7 Using a Different Frequency Pulse Charging Method (VFPCS) 195 12.2.8 Pulse Voltage Charging Method with Different Pulse Widths (DVVPCS) 196 12.2.9 An Overview of Lithium-Ion Batteries 196 12.2.10 Performance Comparison with Other Batteries 197 12.2.11 Lithium-Ion Battery Control System (BMS) 198 12.2.12 Cell Control 198 12.2.13 Checking Input and Output Current and Voltage 198 12.2.14 Battery Charge and Discharge Control 199 12.2.15 State Estimation 199 12.2.16 State of Charge 199 12.2.17 State of Health (SoH) 200 12.2.18 Mode of Operation (SoF) 201 12.2.19 Battery Protection 201 12.3 Temperature and Heat Control 203 12.3.1 Examining the Charger Structure 203 12.4 Bidirectional AC–DC Converters 206 12.4.1 Unidirectional AC–DC Converters 208 12.4.2 Unidirectional Isolated DC–DC Converters 208 12.4.3 Bidirectional Isolated DC–DC Converters 210 12.5 High-Frequency Transformers 210 12.5.1 High-Frequency Transformer Design 210 12.5.2 Core Geometry Method 211 12.5.3 Core Losses 211 12.6 Examine Some of the Charger Examples Provided in the References 212 12.7 Conclusion 218 References 219 Index 221