e-Learning and the Science of Instruction

Preface xv Part I Foundations of e-Learning and the Science of Instruction 1 1 e-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls 3 What Is e-Learning? 4 The Evolution of e-Learning for Training 7 Is e-Learning Better? 9 The Promise of e-Learning 10 The Pitfalls of e-Learning 13 e-Learning Architectures 14 Twenty Years Later 15 2 How People Learn from e-Courses 19 How Do People Learn? 21 Guiding the Learner’s Cognitive Processing During Learning 25 Core Goals for Instructional Design in e-Learning 27 How e-Lessons Affect Learning 31 Summary of Learning Processes 34 What We Don’t Know About Learning 35 3 Evidence-Based Practice 39 What Is Evidence-Based Practice? 40 Rationale for Evidence-Based Practice 41 Three Approaches to Research on Instructional Effectiveness 42 What to Look for in Experimental Comparisons 43 What Are Boundary Conditions? 49 What Is a Meta-Analysis? 49 Limits of Experimental Research 50 Where Can You Find Relevant Research? 50 The Evolution of Evidence-Based Practice 51 What We Don’t Know About Evidence-Based Practice 51 Part II How to Leverage Visuals and Words in e-Learning 55 4 Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics Rather than Words Alone 57 Do Visuals Make a Difference? 59 Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics 60 Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning 63 Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle 66 Evidence for Using Words and Pictures 67 When to Use Animations 72 How to Optimize Learning from Graphics 73 What We Don’t Know About Visuals 74 5 Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words to Corresponding Graphics 81 Spatial Contiguity Principle: Place Printed Words near Corresponding Graphics 83 Violations of Spatial Contiguity 85 Psychological Reasons for the Spatial Contiguity Principle 90 Evidence for the Spatial Contiguity Principle 90 Temporal Contiguity Principle: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics 94 Psychological Reasons for the Temporal Contiguity Principle 96 Evidence for the Temporal Contiguity Principle 97 What We Don’t Know About Contiguity 98 6 Applying the Signaling Principle: Use Verbal and Visual Cues to Direct Attention 103 What Is Signaling? 104 How Does Signaling Work? 105 Evidence for the Benefits of Signaling 106 Signaling: The Bottom Line 110 What We Don’t Know About Signaling 110 7 Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Audio Narration Rather Than On-Screen Text 115 Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text 117 Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle 119 Evidence for Using Spoken Rather Than Printed Text 121 When Audio Is Not Effective: Boundary Conditions for the Modality Principle 123 What We Don’t Know About Modality 127 8 When to Add Text to Audio Narration: Applying the Redundancy Principle 131 What Is the Redundancy Principle? 133 Psychological Reasons for the Redundancy Principle 133 Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-Screen Text 137 Add On-Screen Text to Narration in Special Situations 138 The Bottom Line 142 What We Don’t Know About Redundancy 142 9 Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Extra Material Can Hurt Learning 149 Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Words 152 Principle 2: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Graphics 156 Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio 165 What We Don’t Know About Coherence 166 Part III How to Promote Skill Building in e-Learning 171 10 Engagement in e-Learning: Activities for Promoting Generative Learning 173 What Is Engagement? 175 Engagement and Generative Processing 176 Behavioral Versus Psychological Engagement 177 When Behavioral Engagement Impedes Learning 178 Three Engagement Activities That Can Promote Generative Processing 180 The Bottom Line to Engagement in e-Learning 185 What We Don’t Know About Generative Learning 186 11 Leveraging Examples in e-Learning 191 What Is Example-Based Instruction? 192 The Psychology of Example-Based Instruction 195 Evidence for the Benefits of Example-Based Instruction 196 How to Optimize the Benefits of Example-Based Instruction 197 What We Don’t Know About Worked Examples 208 12 Does Practice Make Perfect? 213 What Is Practice in e-Learning? 215 Is Practice a Good Investment? 217 Principle 1: Add Sufficient Practice Interactions to Achieve the Objective 219 Principle 2: Make Sure Practice Mirrors the Job 221 Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback on Practice Performance 221 Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events 227 Principle 5: Arrange Practice That Increases in Challenge as Learners Progress 229 Principle 6: Provide Scaffolding to Support Guided Practice When Needed 229 Principle 7: Apply Multimedia Principles in Designing Feedback 231 What We Don’t Know About Practice 232 Part IV How to Organize Content in e-Learning 235 13 Organizing Instruction: Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles 237 What Is the Segmenting Principle? 239 What Is the Pretraining Principle? 244 Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle 248 Managing Essential Overload 249 What We Don’t Know About Segmenting and Pretraining 250 14 Who’s in Control?: Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation 255 Learner Control Versus Program Control 257 Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions? 260 The Psychology of Learner Decisions 263 Four Principles for Learner Control in e-Learning 264 The Bottom Line 271 What We Don’t Know About Learner Control 271 Part V How to Leverage Social Cues in e-Learning 275 15 Applying the Personalization Principle: Use Conversational Style, Polite Wording, Friendly Voice, On-Screen Agents, and Social Presence in e-Learning 277 Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather Than Formal Style 280 Personalization Principle 2: Use Polite Wording 285 Personalization Principle 3: Use a Friendly Human Voice Quality for Narrations 286 Can On-Screen Agents Promote Learning in Asynchronous e-Learning? 287 How Can Instructors in Video Lessons Leverage Personalization? 293 What We Don’t Know About Personalization 295 16 Online Collaborative Learning 299 What Is Collaborative Learning? 301 The Psychology of Collaborative Learning 303 What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)? 304 Principle 1: Design Tasks and Team Assignments to Foster Interdependence 307 Principle 2: Optimize Group Size, Prior Knowledge, and Collaboration Experience 309 Principle 3: Consider Tradeoffs Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Collaboration 310 Principle 4: Maximize Social Presence in Online Collaborative Environments 312 Principle 5: Use Scripts to Optimize Team Outcomes 313 What We Don’t Know About Online Collaborative Learning 316 Part VI Special Applications of e-Learning 319 17 e-Learning to Build Thinking Skills 321 What Are Thinking Skills? 323 What to Teach: Focused Target Skills Versus Improving the Mind in General 325 Where to Teach: Domain-General Versus Domain-Specific Thinking Skills 325 How to Teach: Expert Modeling with Learner Practice Versus Direct Instruction 326 Can Thinking Skills Be Trained? 326 Principle 1: Build Explicit Instruction to Teach Specific Job-Relevant Thinking Skills 328 Principle 2: Incorporate Online Simulations of Authentic Work Scenarios 332 Principle 3: Identify Job-Specific Thinking Processes 335 Teaching Thinking Skills: The Bottom Line 336 What We Don’t Know About Teaching Thinking Skills 336 18 Designing Effective Instructional Video 341 The Challenge of Instructional Video 343 Historical Foundations of Instructional Video 343 Uses of Instructional Video 343 Principle 1: Record a Demonstration Video from a First-Person Perspective 345 Principle 2: Have the Instructor Draw on the Board While Lecturing 346 Principle 3: Embed Generative Activities During Breaks in the Video 347 Principle 4: Add Subtitles for Learning in a Second Language 348 Principle 5: Have the Instructor Exhibit Positive Voice and Gestures 349 Principle 6: Have the Instructor Use Pointing and Eye Gaze to Direct Attention 350 Principle 7: Avoid Overuse of Talking Heads or Static Instructor Images 351 Principle 8: Apply Multimedia Design Principles 352 What We Don’t Know About Instructional Video 353 19 Learning with Computer Games 357 Do Games Have a Place in the Serious Business of Training? 359 Which Features Improve a Game’s Effectiveness? 359 What Are the Cognitive Consequences of Playing Off-the-Shelf Computer Games? 365 Are Games More Effective Than Conventional Media? 368 What We Don’t Know About Learning with Computer Games 375 20 Immersive Virtual Reality for Instruction 379 The Promise and Pitfalls of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality 381 What Is Immersive Virtual Reality? 382 Three Levels of Immersion 383 Is Immersive Virtual Reality Better for Learning Than Traditional Media? 383 When to Use Immersive Virtual Reality Learning Environments 386 How to Use Immersive Virtual Reality Training Environments 386 What We Don’t Know About Immersive Virtual Reality 389 21 Applying the Multimedia Guidelines 395 How Strong Is the Evidence for the Multimedia Principles? 395 e-Learning Guidelines Checklists 400 Trends in Multimedia Instructional Design Research 404 The Future of Multimedia Instructional Design Research 405 Conclusion 407 Glossary 409 References 429 Acknowledgments 459 About the Authors 461 Author Index 463 Subject Index 473