Wireless Communication Signals

Preface xv List of Contributors xix Acronyms List xx 1 Hands-on Wireless Communication Experience 1 Hüseyin Arslan 1.1 Importance of Laboratory-Based Learning of Wireless Communications 1 1.2 Model for a Practical Lab Bench 3 1.3 Examples of Co-simulation with Hardware 6 1.4 A Sample Model for a Laboratory Course 8 1.4.1 Introduction to the SDR and Testbed Platform 11 1.4.2 Basic Simulation 11 1.4.3 Measurements and Multidimensional Signal Analysis 11 1.4.4 Digital Modulation 12 1.4.5 Pulse Shaping 13 1.4.6 RF Front-end and RF Impairments 13 1.4.7 Wireless Channel and Interference 14 1.4.8 Synchronization and Channel Estimation 15 1.4.9 OFDM Signal Analysis and Performance Evaluation 15 1.4.10 Multiple Accessing 16 1.4.11 Independent Project Development Phase 16 1.4.11.1 Software Defined Radio 17 1.4.11.2 Dynamic Spectrum Access and CR Experiment 17 1.4.11.3 Wireless Channel 17 1.4.11.4 Wireless Channel Counteractions 18 1.4.11.5 Antenna Project 18 1.4.11.6 Signal Intelligence 18 1.4.11.7 Channel, User, and Context Awareness Project 19 1.4.11.8 Combination of DSP Lab with RF and Microwave Lab 19 1.4.11.9 Multiple Access and Interference Management 19 1.4.11.10 Standards 20 1.5 Conclusions 20 References 20 2 Performance Metrics and Measurements 23 Hüseyin Arslan 2.1 Signal Quality Measurements 23 2.1.1 Measurements Before Demodulation 24 2.1.2 Measurements During and After Demodulation 25 2.1.2.1 Noise Figure 26 2.1.2.2 Channel Frequency Response Estimation 26 2.1.3 Measurements After Channel Decoding 26 2.1.3.1 Relation of SNR with BER 27 2.1.4 Error Vector Magnitude 27 2.1.4.1 Error-Vector-Time and Error-Vector-Frequency 29 2.1.4.2 Relation of EVM with Other Metrics 30 2.1.4.3 Rho 31 2.1.5 Measures After Speech or Video Decoding 31 2.2 Visual Inspections and Useful Plots 32 2.2.1 Advanced Scatter Plot 39 2.3 Cognitive Radio and SDR Measurements 40 2.4 Other Measurements 42 2.5 Clarifying dB and dBm 44 2.6 Conclusions 45 References 45 3 Multidimensional Signal Analysis 49 Hüseyin Arslan 3.1 Why Multiple Dimensions in a Radio Signal? 49 3.2 Time Domain Analysis 52 3.2.1 CCDF and PAPR 53 3.2.2 Time Selectivity Measure 56 3.3 Frequency Domain Analysis 57 3.3.1 Adjacent Channel Power Ratio 59 3.3.2 Frequency Selectivity Measure 61 3.4 Joint Time-Frequency Analysis 62 3.5 Code Domain Analysis 64 3.5.1 Code Selectivity 66 3.6 Correlation Analysis 67 3.7 Modulation Domain Analysis 68 3.8 Angular Domain Analysis 68 3.8.1 Direction Finding 68 3.8.2 Angular Spread 70 3.9 MIMO Measurements 71 3.9.1 Antenna Correlation 72 3.9.2 RF Cross-Coupling 72 3.9.3 EVM Versus Antenna Branches 73 3.9.4 Channel Parameters 73 3.10 Conclusions 73 References 74 4 Simulating a Communication System 77 Muhammad Sohaib J. Solaija and Hüseyin Arslan 4.1 Simulation: What,Why? 77 4.2 Approaching a Simulation 78 4.2.1 Strategy 78 4.2.2 General Methodology 80 4.3 Basic Modeling Concepts 81 4.3.1 System Modeling 81 4.3.2 Subsystem Modeling 81 4.3.3 Stochastic Modeling 82 4.4 What is a Link/Link-level Simulation? 82 4.4.1 Source and Source Coding 82 4.4.2 Channel Coding 83 4.4.3 Symbol Mapping/Modulation 83 4.4.4 Upsampling 84 4.4.5 Digital Filtering 84 4.4.6 RF Front-end 85 4.4.7 Channel 86 4.4.8 Synchronization and Equalization 87 4.4.9 Performance Evaluation and Signal Analysis 87 4.5 Communication in AWGN – A Simple Case Study 88 4.5.1 Receiver Design 88 4.6 Multi-link vs. Network-level Simulations 88 4.6.1 Network Layout Generation 90 4.6.1.1 Hexagonal Grid 90 4.6.1.2 PPP-based Network Layout 91 4.7 Practical Issues 93 4.7.1 Monte Carlo Simulations 93 4.7.2 Random Number Generation 94 4.7.2.1 White Noise Generation 94 4.7.2.2 Random Binary Sequence 94 4.7.3 Values of Simulation Parameters 95 4.7.4 Confidence Interval 95 4.7.5 Convergence/Stopping Criterion 95 4.8 Issues/Limitations of Simulations 95 4.8.1 Modeling Errors 96 4.8.1.1 Errors in System Model 96 4.8.1.2 Errors in Subsystem Model 96 4.8.1.3 Errors in Random Process Modeling 96 4.8.2 Processing Errors 96 4.9 Conclusions 97 References 97 5 RF Impairments 99 Hüseyin Arslan 5.1 Radio Impairment Sources 99 5.2 IQ Modulation Impairments 102 5.3 PA Nonlinearities 106 5.4 Phase Noise and Time Jitter 110 5.5 Frequency Offset 112 5.6 ADC/DAC Impairments 113 5.7 Thermal Noise 114 5.8 RF Impairments and Interference 114 5.8.1 Harmonics and Intermodulation Products 114 5.8.2 Multiple Access Interference 116 5.9 Conclusions 118 References 118 6 Digital Modulation and Pulse Shaping 121 Hüseyin Arslan 6.1 Digital Modulation Basics 121 6.2 Popularly Used Digital Modulation Schemes 123 6.2.1 PSK 123 6.2.2 FSK 125 6.2.2.1 GMSK and Approximate Representation of GSM GMSK Signal 127 6.2.3 QAM 129 6.2.4 Differential Modulation 132 6.3 Adaptive Modulation 133 6.3.1 Gray Mapping 135 6.3.2 Calculation of Error 135 6.3.3 Relation of Eb No with SNR at the receiver 138 6.4 Pulse-Shaping Filtering 138 6.5 Conclusions 146 References 146 7 OFDM Signal Analysis and Performance Evaluation 147 Hüseyin Arslan 7.1 Why OFDM? 147 7.2 Generic OFDM System Design and Its Evaluation 149 7.2.1 Basic CP-OFDM Transceiver Design 150 7.2.2 Spectrum of the OFDM Signal 151 7.2.3 PAPR of the OFDM Signal 155 7.2.4 Performance in Multipath Channel 157 7.2.4.1 Time-Dispersive Multipath Channel 157 7.2.4.2 Frequency-Dispersive Multipath Channel 161 7.2.5 Performance with Impairments 162 7.2.5.1 Frequency Offset 163 7.2.5.2 Symbol Timing Error 167 7.2.5.3 Sampling Clock Offset 170 7.2.5.4 Phase Noise 171 7.2.5.5 PA Nonlinearities 172 7.2.5.6 I/Q Impairments 175 7.2.6 Summary of the OFDM Design Considerations 177 7.2.7 Coherent versus Differential OFDM 178 7.3 OFDM-like Signaling 180 7.3.1 OFDM Versus SC-FDE 180 7.3.2 Multi-user OFDM and OFDMA 181 7.3.3 SC-FDMA and DFT-S-OFDM 182 7.4 Case Study: Measurement-Based OFDM Receiver 185 7.4.1 System Model 185 7.4.1.1 Frame Format 186 7.4.1.2 OFDM Symbol Format 186 7.4.1.3 Baseband Transmitter Blocks and Transmitted Signal Model 186 7.4.1.4 Received Signal Model 188 7.4.2 Receiver Structure and Algorithms 189 7.4.2.1 Packet Detection 191 7.4.2.2 Frequency Offset Estimation and Compensation 191 7.4.2.3 Symbol Timing Estimation 192 7.4.2.4 Packet-end Detection and Packet Extraction 193 7.4.2.5 Channel Estimation and Equalization 194 7.4.2.6 Pilot Tracking 195 7.4.2.7 Auto-modulation Detection 195 7.4.3 FCH Decoding 196 7.4.4 Test and Measurements 196 7.5 Conclusions 197 References 198 8 Analysis of Single-Carrier Communication Systems 201 Hüseyin Arslan 8.1 A Simple System in AWGN Channel 201 8.2 Flat Fading (Non-Dispersive) Multipath Channel 210 8.3 Frequency-Selective (Dispersive) Multipath Channel 215 8.3.1 Time-Domain Equalization 219 8.3.2 Channel Estimation 223 8.3.3 Frequency-Domain Equalization 226 8.4 Extension of Dispersive Multipath Channel to DS-CDMA-based Wideband Systems 229 8.5 Conclusions 232 References 232 9 Multiple Accessing, Multi-Numerology, Hybrid Waveforms 235 Mehmet Mert ¸Sahin and Hüseyin Arslan 9.1 Preliminaries 235 9.1.1 Duplexing 236 9.1.2 Downlink Communication 237 9.1.3 Uplink Communication 238 9.1.4 Traffic Theory and Trunking Gain 238 9.2 Orthogonal Design 241 9.2.1 TDMA 241 9.2.2 FDMA 242 9.2.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 243 9.2.4 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA) 245 9.2.5 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) 246 9.2.5.1 Multiuser Multiple-input Multiple-output (MIMO) 247 9.3 Non-orthogonal Design 249 9.3.1 Power-domain Non-orthogonal Multiple Access (PD-NOMA) 250 9.3.2 Code-domain Non-orthogonal Multiple Access 251 9.4 Random Access 253 9.4.1 ALOHA 253 9.4.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Accessing (CSMA) 254 9.4.3 Multiple Access Collision Avoidance (MACA) 254 9.4.4 Random Access Channel (RACH) 255 9.4.5 Grant-free Random Access 255 9.5 Multiple Accessing with Application-Based Hybrid Waveform Design 256 9.5.1 Multi-numerology Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) 256 9.5.2 Radar-Sensing and Communication (RSC) Coexistence 258 9.5.3 Coexistence of Different Waveforms in Multidimensional Hyperspace for 6G and Beyond Networks 260 9.6 Case Study 261 Appendix: Erlang B table 263 References 263 10 Wireless Channel and Interference 267 Abuu B. Kihero, Armed Tusha, and Hüseyin Arslan 10.1 Fundamental Propagation Phenomena 267 10.2 Multipath Propagation 269 10.2.1 Large-Scale Fading 269 10.2.1.1 Path Loss 270 10.2.1.2 Shadowing 271 10.2.2 Small-Scale Fading 272 10.2.2.1 Characterization of Time-Varying Channels 273 10.2.2.2 Rayleigh and Rician Fading Distributions 274 10.2.3 Time, Frequency and Angular Domains Characteristics of Multipath Channel 276 10.2.3.1 Delay Spread 276 10.2.3.2 Angular Spread 279 10.2.3.3 Doppler Spread 281 10.2.4 Novel Channel Characteristics in the 5G Technology 284 10.3 Channel as a Source of Interference 288 10.3.1 Interference due to Large-Scale Fading 288 10.3.1.1 Cellular Systems and CoChannel Interference 288 10.3.1.2 Cochannel Interference Control via Resource Assignment 289 10.3.2 Interference due to Small-Scale Fading 292 10.4 Channel Modeling 293 10.4.1 Analytical Channel Models 294 10.4.1.1 Correlation-based Models 294 10.4.1.2 Propagation-Motivated Models 294 10.4.2 Physical Models 295 10.4.2.1 Deterministic Model 295 10.4.2.2 Geometry-based Stochastic Model 295 10.4.2.3 Nongeometry-based Stochastic Models 296 10.4.3 3GPP 5G Channel Models 297 10.4.3.1 Tapped Delay Line (TDL) Model 297 10.4.3.2 Clustered Delay Line (CDL) Model 298 10.4.3.3 Generating Channel Coefficients Using CDL Model 299 10.4.4 Role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Channel Modeling 300 10.5 Channel Measurement 301 10.5.1 Frequency Domain Channel Sounder 303 10.5.1.1 Swept Frequency/Chirp Sounder 303 10.5.2 Time Domain Channel Sounder 304 10.5.2.1 Periodic Pulse/Impulse Sounder 304 10.5.2.2 Correlative/Pulse Compression Sounders 305 10.5.3 Challenges of Practical Channel Measurement 308 10.6 Channel Emulation 308 10.6.1 Baseband and RF Domain Channel Emulators 309 10.6.2 Reverberation Chambers as Channel Emulator 309 10.6.2.1 General Principles 309 10.6.2.2 Emulating Multipath Effects Using RVC 311 10.6.3 Commercial Wireless Channel Emulators 318 10.7 Wireless Channel Control 319 10.8 Conclusion 321 References 321 11 Carrier and Time Synchronization 325 Musab Alayasra and Hüseyin Arslan 11.1 Signal Modeling 325 11.2 Synchronization Approaches 327 11.3 Carrier Synchronization 329 11.3.1 Coarse Frequency Offset Compensation 331 11.3.1.1 DFT-based Coarse Frequency Offset Compensation 331 11.3.1.2 Phase-based Coarse Frequency Offset Compensation 333 11.3.2 Fine Frequency Offset Compensation 335 11.3.2.1 Feedforward MLE-Based Frequency Offset Compensation 335 11.3.2.2 Feedback Heuristic-Based Frequency Offset Compensation 340 11.3.3 Carrier Phase Offset Compensation 344 11.4 Time Synchronization 345 11.4.1 Frame Synchronization 346 11.4.2 Symbol Timing Synchronization 347 11.4.2.1 Feedforward MLE-based Symbol Timing Synchronization 348 11.4.2.2 Feedback Heuristic-based Symbol Timing Synchronization 349 11.5 Conclusion 352 References 353 12 Blind Signal Analysis 355 Mehmet Ali Aygül, Ahmed Naeem, and Hüseyin Arslan 12.1 What is Blind Signal Analysis? 355 12.2 Applications of Blind Signal Analysis 355 12.2.1 Spectrum Sensing 356 12.2.2 Parameter Estimation and Signal Identification 357 12.2.2.1 Parameter Estimation 357 12.2.2.2 Signal Identification 357 12.2.3 Radio Environment Map 358 12.2.4 Equalization 360 12.2.5 Modulation Identification 361 12.2.6 Multi-carrier (OFDM) Parameters Estimation 362 12.3 Case Study: Blind Receiver 363 12.3.1 Bandwidth Estimation 364 12.3.2 Carrier Frequency Estimation 365 12.3.3 Symbol Rate Estimation 366 12.3.4 Pulse-Shaping and Roll-off Factor Estimation 366 12.3.5 Optimum Sampling Phase Estimation 368 12.3.6 Timing Recovery 369 12.3.7 Frequency Offset and Phase Offset Estimation 371 12.4 Machine Learning for Blind Signal Analysis 372 12.4.1 Deep Learning 374 12.4.2 Applications of Machine Learning 375 12.4.2.1 Signal and Interference Identification 375 12.4.2.2 Multi-RF Impairments Identification, Separation, and Classification 375 12.4.2.3 Channel Modeling and Estimation 376 12.4.2.4 Spectrum Occupancy Prediction 377 12.5 Challenges and Potential Study Items 378 12.5.1 Challenges 378 12.5.2 Potential Study Items 379 12.6 Conclusions 379 References 380 13 Radio Environment Monitoring 383 Halise Türkmen, Saira Rafique, and Hüseyin Arslan 13.1 Radio Environment Map 384 13.2 Generalized Radio Environment Monitoring 385 13.2.1 Radio Environment Monitoring with the G-REM Framework 387 13.3 Node Types 388 13.4 Sensing Modes 388 13.5 Observable Data, Derivable Information and Other Sources 389 13.6 Sensing Methods 389 13.6.1 Sensing Configurations 390 13.6.2 Processing Data and Control Signal 391 13.6.2.1 Channel State Information (CSI) 391 13.6.2.2 Channel Impulse Response (CIR) 393 13.6.2.3 Channel Frequency Response (CFR) 393 13.6.3 Blind Signal Analysis 393 13.6.4 Radio Detection and Ranging 394 13.6.4.1 Radar Test-bed 401 13.6.5 Joint Radar and Communication 402 13.6.5.1 Coexistence 403 13.6.5.2 Co-Design 403 13.6.5.3 RadComm 405 13.6.5.4 CommRad 406 13.7 Mapping Methods 407 13.7.1 Signal Processing Algorithms 407 13.7.2 Interpolation Techniques 408 13.7.2.1 Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation 408 13.7.2.2 Kriging’s Interpolation 409 13.7.3 Model-Based Techniques 410 13.7.4 Learning-Based Techniques 410 13.7.5 Hybrid Techniques 410 13.7.6 Case Study: Radio Frequency Map Construction 410 13.7.6.1 Radio Frequency Map Construction Test-bed for CR 411 13.7.7 Case Study: Wireless Local Area Network/Wi-Fi Sensing 413 13.7.7.1 WLAN Sensing Test-bed for Gesture Detection 415 13.8 Applications of G-REM 416 13.8.1 Cognitive Radios 417 13.8.2 Security 417 13.8.2.1 PHY Layer Security 417 13.8.2.2 Cross-Layer Security 417 13.8.3 Multi-Antenna Communication Systems 418 13.8.3.1 UE and Obstacle Tracking for Beam Management 418 13.8.3.2 No-Feedback Channel Estimation for FDD MIMO and mMIMO Systems 418 13.8.4 Formation and Management of Ad Hoc Networks and Device-to-Device Communication 418 13.8.5 Content Caching 419 13.8.6 Enabling Flexible Radios for 6G and Beyond Networks 419 13.8.7 Non-Communication Applications 419 13.9 Challenges and Future Directions 420 13.9.1 Security 420 13.9.2 Scheduling 421 13.9.3 Integration of (New) Technologies 421 13.9.3.1 Re-configurable Intelligent Surfaces 421 13.9.3.2 Quantum Radar 421 13.10 Conclusion 422 References 422 Index 425