Compositional and Failure Analysis of Polymers

Preface xxxi About the Author xxxiii Acknowledgements xxxv Glossary xxxvii 1 A Methodology for Solving Polymer Problems 1 1 Introduction 1 2 Flow Diagram for Solving Polymer Problems 4 3 Dealing with Special Problem Classes 12 4 Product Life Cycle 15 5 Checklist and Worksheet for Organizing the Problem-Solving Process 17 References 20 2 Sampling and Sample Preparation 21 1 Introduction 21 2 Sampling 22 3 Sample Storage 23 4 Sample Preparation 24 References 36 3 Microscopy of Polymers 37 1 Optical Microscopy Techniques 37 2 Electron Microscopy 55 3 Special Microscopic Techniques 60 4 Practical Examples of the Uses of Microscopy in Polymer Analysis 65 References 70 4 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopic Analysis Methods for Polymers 71 1 Introduction 71 2 FTIR Techniques 73 3 Special IR Techniques 84 4 Sample Preparation 87 5 FTIR Analysis of Difficult Sample Forms 93 6 Interpreting and Validating FTIR Data 101 7 Derivatization Techniques 105 References 106 5 Thermal Analysis of Polymers 107 1 Introduction 107 2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 108 2.2.11 Evaluating Heat Ageing of Amorphous Polymers 121 3 Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis 129 4 Dynamic Mechanical Rheological Testing 131 5 Thermomechanical Analysis 132 6 Glass Transition Temperature and its Determination 133 7 Thermogravimetry 138 8 Thermal Volatilization Analysis 145 References 145 6 Identification and Analysis of Polymers 147 1 Introduction 147 2 Examples of Analytical Techniques used for Common Polymers 153 7 Analysis of Blends, Copolymers and Oligomers 193 1 Polymer Blends 193 2 Copolymers 201 3 Oligomers 206 References 213 8 Identification and Analysis of Thermoset Elastomers 215 1 Thermogravimeny 215 2 FTIR Spectroscopic Analysis of Carbon-Filled Rubbers 222 3 Rubber Identification by Pyrolysis Methods 223 4 Analysis of Specific Rubber Types 224 References 228 9 Analysis of 'Difficult' or Intractable Polymer Samples 230 l Introduction 230 2 FTIR Spectroscopic Techniques for Difficult Samples 230 3 Pyrolysis of Intractable Samples 233 4 Thennogravimetry 236 5 Laser-Desorption Fourier-Transfonn Mass Spectrometry 237 References 239 10 Analysis of Additives in Polymers and Elastomers 240 1 Introduction 240 2 Grinding 241 3 Additive Extraction 242 4 Analysis Methods 248 5 In situ Additive Analysis in Rubbers 259 6 Miscellaneous Examples of Additive Analysis Methods 260 References 268 11 Analysis of Contaminants and Inclusions in Polymers 270 1 Introduction   270 2 Classes of Typical Contamination 271 3 Techniques for Analysis of Contamination 280 3.1 Optical Microscopy 280 4 Gel Particles and other Inclusions 288 References 302 12 Mechanical Failure Mechanisms of Polymers 304 1 Introduction 304 2 Tensile Failure 310 3 Shear Failure 310 4 Compressive Failure 311 5 Crazing 311 6 Shear Banding 313 7 Creep 315 8 Fatigue Failure 317 8.1 Introduction 317 9 Impact Fracture 324 10 Physical Ageing 330 11 Failure Due to Temperature Effects 333 11.1 Maximum- and Minimum-Use Temperatures 333 12 Failure Due to Improper Processing 336 13 General Examples of Polymer Failure 339 14 Failure of Medical Plastics 352 15 Failure of Polymers and Elastomers by Explosive Decompression 352 16 Failure Analysis by Fractography 359 References 361 13 Chemical Attack of Polymers 363 1 Introduction 363 2 Factors Determining Chemical Resistance 365 3 Types of Chemical Attack 365 4 Analysis Methods for Assessing Chemical Degradation 391 5 Case Study 395 References 395 14 Oxidative Degradation of Polymers 397 1 Introduction 397 2 Accelerated Ageing Techniques 410 3 Testing Methods 414 References 443 15 Failure of Fibre-Reinforced Composites 449 1 Introduction 449 2 Fibre Adhesion in Composites 452 3 Failure of Composites due to Manufacturing and Cure-Related Factors 454 4 Failure Behaviour of Composites 458 5 Failure of Composites due to Thermal Effects 471 6 Effects of Moisture on Composites 473 7 Chemical Attack on Composites 474 8 Oxidative Degradation 475 9 Photo-Oxidative Degradation of Fibre Reinforcements 475 10 Radiation Degradation of Composites 476 11 Failure Testing of Composites 476 12 Fractography of Composites 477 References 480 16 Problems Related to Additives in Polymers 482 1 Introduction 482 2 Blooming 482 3 Sublimation 487 4 Plateout     488 5 Die Drool 489 6 Bleeding 490 7 Additive Migration 491 8 Additive Interactions 492 9 Additive Decomposition 496 10 Additive-Induced Polymer Decomposition 502 11 Additive Dispersion Problems 507 12 Effect of Additives on the Polymers Mechanical Properties 514 13 Pigment-Induced Distortion 515 14 Abrasion 516 References 516 17 Weathering of Polymers 518 1 Introduction 518 2 Preliminary Investigations 522 3 Case Studies 523 4 Problems with Other Polymer Types and Applications 536 5 Polymer Weatherability Assessment (Accelerated Weathering) 541 References 545 18 Environmental Stress Cracking of Polymers 546 1 Introduction 546 2 ESC Mechanisms 549 3 Special Applications where ESC is likely to Occur 554 4 Testing Methods to Determine ESC Resistance 556 5 Surface-Tension and Solubility-Parameter Effects 561 6 ESC Behaviour of Particular Polymers 563 7 Investigating an ESC Failure 578 8 ESC Case Study 581 References 585 19 Residual Stresses and Weld Lines in Polymers 587 1 Introduction 597 2 Residual Stresses and Molecular Orientation 590 3 Weldlines 607 4 Shrinkage and Warpage 617 References 619 20 Odour, Tainting and Outgassing Problems with Polymers 622 1 Odour Problems in Polymers 622 2 Taste and Off-Flavours 632 3 Out-Gassing 636 4 Volatiles in Polymers and Their Detection 640 References 645 21 Adhesion Problems with Polymers and Interfaces 647 1 Introduction 647 2 Case Studies 649 3 Common Classes of Polymerie Adhesives 660 4 Common Causes of Adhesive Failure 662 References 668 22 Voids, Blisters and Surface Defects 670 1 Voids 670 2 Blisters 683 3 Surface Defects 689 References 691 23 Discoloration of Polymers 692 1 Introduction 692 2 Polyolefins 697 3 Aromatic Polymers Containing Ph–O or Ph–N Linkages 716 4 Aromatic Polymers containing Ph–C=O or Ph–S Linkages 721 5 Nitrile Polymers 726 6 Vinyl Polymers 729 7 Miscellaneous Polymers 733 8 Radiation Yellowing 736 References 738 Index 741