Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals

Dedication xii About the Companion Website xiii Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology 1 Anatomical Nomenclature, Directional Terms, and Planes of Section 3 Microscopic Anatomy: Animal Cells and Tissues 5 Epithelial Tissues 6 Connective Tissues 11 Muscle Tissue 13 Nervous Tissue 15 The General Plan of the Animal Body 15 Chapter 2: Anatomy and Physiology of the Cell 21 Properties of Life 22 Chemical Composition of the Cell 24 Water 24 Proteins 25 Lipids 26 Carbohydrates 28 Inorganic Substances 29 Acids, Bases, and pH 29 Microscopic Study of the Cell 29 Light Microscopy 30 Electron Microscopy 32 The Cell Membrane 33 Structure of the Membrane 33 Intercellular Contact and Adhesion 35 Transport Across Cell Membranes 36 Simple and Facilitated Diffusion 36 Osmosis 38 Active Transport 40 Membrane Potentials and Excitable Cells 41 Resting Membrane Potential 41 Excitable Cells and Action Potentials 42 Membrane Receptors and Intracellular Signaling 43 Cytoplasm and Cytoplasmic Organelles 47 Cytoplasm 47 The Golgi Apparatus 47 The Endoplasmic Reticulum and Ribosomes 47 Mitochondria 47 Lysosomes 48 Other Structures 48 Nucleus 49 Structure of the Nucleus 49 DNA and DNA Replication 50 RNA: Transcription and Translation 51 Biotechnology 53 Cell Division 55 Mitosis 55 Meiosis 56 Regulation of Cell Growth and Replication 57 Chapter 3: Embryology 59 Development of Germ Layers 60 Principles of Differentiation 63 Neurulation 63 Mesodermal Differentiation 64 Teratogenesis 66 Chapter 4: The Skeletal System 69 Functions of Bones 70 Terminology 70 Classification of Bones According to Gross Appearance 73 Axial Skeleton 75 Skull 75 Vertebral Column 79 Sternum and Ribs 82 Appendicular Skeleton 83 Thoracic Limbs 83 Pelvic Limbs 87 Chapter 5: Microscopic Anatomy and Growth and Development of Bone 91 Microscopic Anatomy and Formation of Bone 92 Ossification 94 Endochondral (Intracartilaginous) Ossification 94 Intramembranous Ossification 96 Physiology of Bone 96 Bone Mechanics and Remodeling 96 Calcium of Bone 97 Fractures and Fracture Healing 97 Other Pathologic Conditions 99 Chapter 6 Joints 101 Classification of Joints 102 Fibrous Joints 102 Cartilaginous Joints 103 Synovial Joints 103 Other Synovial Structures 104 Movements of Joints 104 Types of Synovial Joints 106 Joints of the Axial Skeleton 107 Joints of the Appendicular Skeleton 108 Joints of the Thoracic Limb 108 Joints of the Pelvic Limb 111 Pathology of Joints and Related Structures 117 Chapter 7 Anatomy of the Muscular System 121 Anatomical Nomenclature of Muscles 122 Types of Muscle Tissue 122 Skeletal Muscle Organization 122 Muscle Attachments 123 Functional Grouping of Muscles 124 Synovial Structures 126 Muscles of the Thoracic Limb 127 Extrinsic Muscles of the Thoracic Limb 130 Muscles Acting on the Shoulder Joint 131 Muscles Acting on the Elbow 132 Muscles Acting on the Distal Limb 133 Muscles of the Pelvic Limb 135 Muscles Acting on the Hip Joint 135 Muscles Acting on the Stifle 141 Muscles Acting on the Hock 142 Muscles Acting on the Digit 142 Muscles of the Head 143 Muscles of Mastication 143 Muscles of Facial Expression 144 Other Muscles of the Head 144 Muscles of the Trunk and Neck 145 Extensors of the Vertebral Column 145 Flexors of the Vertebral Column 150 Abdominal Muscles 150 Muscles of Respiration 151 Chapter 8: The Equine Foot and Passive Stay Apparatus 153 Structure of the Foot 154 Bones and Cartilages 154 Cornified Tissues 155 Tendons 159 Ligaments 160 Synovial Structures 162 Function 163 Concussion and Storage of Energy 163 Stay Apparatus 163 Thoracic Limb 164 Pelvic Limb 166 Chapter 9: Microscopic Anatomy and Physiology of Muscle 171 Skeletal Muscle 172 Structure 172 Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation 175 Strength of Contraction 179 Drugs That Affect Skeletal Muscle Function 181 Types of Muscle Contraction 182 Smooth Muscle 182 Structure 183 Stress–Relaxation 183 Contraction and Relaxation 184 Role and Sources of Calcium 184 Action Potentials and Slow Waves 185 Autonomic Innervation 186 Cardiac Muscle 187 Excitation and Contraction 187 Cardiac Hypertrophy 188 Chapter 10: Anatomy of the Nervous System 189 Microscopic Neuroanatomy 192 Embryology 194 Central Nervous System 197 Brain 197 Meninges 200 Spinal Cord 202 Peripheral Nervous System 205 Spinal Nerves 205 Cranial Nerves 206 Autonomic Nervous System 206 Sympathetic Nervous System 208 Parasympathetic Nervous System 211 Enteric Nervous System 212 Chapter 11:Physiology of the Nervous System 213 Functional Regions of the Neuron 214 Physiology of the Nerve Impulse 214 Conduction Velocity and Myelination 216 Synaptic Transmission 217 Neurotransmitters 220 Neural Control of Skeletal Muscle 221 Reflexes Involving Skeletal Muscle Contraction 222 Voluntary Movement 223 Physiology of the Autonomic Nervous System 224 Regulation of Autonomic Nervous System Activity 224 Autonomic Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors 226 Regeneration and Repair in the Nervous System 227 Chapter 12: Sense Organs 229 Sensory Receptors 230 Somatosensation 232 Pain 232 Proprioception 233 Touch 234 Visceral Sensations 234 Chemical Senses 234 Gustation 234 Olfaction 235 Hearing and Balance 236 External Ear 236 Middle Ear 238 Internal Ear 238 Physiology of Hearing 239 Mechanisms of Balance 242 Vision 245 Ocular Adnexa 245 Globe 247 Lens 250 Visual Field and Light Path 251 Visual Pathways of the Brain 251 Chapter 13: Endocrinology 253 Hormones and Their Receptors 254 Chemical Classes of Hormones 254 Eicosanoids 255 Hormone Receptors 256 Cellular Effects of Peptide Hormones 256 Cellular Effects of Steroid and Thyroid Hormones 259 Negative and Positive Feedback Regulation 259 Hypothalamopituitary Axis 260 Hormones of the Neurohypophysis 262 Hormones of the Adenohypophysis 263 Growth Hormone 263 Adrenocorticotropic Hormone 264 Thyroid‐Stimulating Hormone 265 Other Endocrine Glands 268 Parathyroid Glands 268 Pancreatic Islets 270 Epiphysis (Pineal Gland) 271 Chapter 14: The Integument 273 Integument 274 Skin 274 Epidermis 274 Dermis 275 Hypodermis 276 Adnexa of the Skin 276 Hair 276 Glands 278 Modified Epidermis 279 Hooves 280 Horns 282 Dewclaws 283 Chestnuts and Ergots 283 Coat Color in Horses 283 Wool 285 Chapter 15: Blood and Other Body Fluids 287 Blood 288 Formed Elements of Blood and Hematopoiesis 289 Erythrocytes 290 Platelets 293 Leukocytes 294 Plasma and Serum 295 Blood pH 296 Hemostasis and Coagulation 296 Platelets and the Endothelium 297 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Coagulation Pathways 297 Lymph 300 Serous Fluids 300 Chapter 16: Body Defenses and the Immune System 301 Nonspecific Defenses 302 Specific Immune Response 304 B Lymphocytes 304 Immunoglobulins 305 T Cells and Cell‐Mediated Immunity 306 Lymphocyte Origin, Development, and Residence 308 Active and Passive Immunities 308 Immunological Surveillance 308 Lymphatic System 309 Lymphatic Vessels 309 Lymph Nodes 309 Spleen 312 Thymus 313 Tonsils 314 Chapter 17: Anatomy of the Cardiovascular System 315 Heart 316 Pericardium 316 Cardiac Anatomy 317 Vessels 320 Blood Vessels 320 Lymphatic Vessels 320 Pulmonary Circulation 320 Systemic Circulation 321 Aorta 322 Arterial Distribution to the Head 323 Arterial Distribution to the Thoracic Limb 323 Arterial Distribution to the Pelvic Limb 324 Veins 325 Cranial Vena Cava 326 Caudal Vena Cava 327 Portal System 327 Fetal Circulation 327 Chapter 18: Physiology of the Heart and Circulation 331 Basic Design and Function of the Cardiovascular System 332 Cardiac Cycle 333 Systole 336 Diastole 336 Heart Sounds and Murmurs 336 Imaging the Heart 337 Electrical Activity of the Heart 337 Sinoatrial Node and Heart Rate 337 Atrioventricular Node and Other Specialized Conductive Cells in the Heart 339 Electrocardiography and Arrhythmias 339 Cardiac Output and Its Regulation 340 Ventricular Filling and Stroke Volume 340 Cardiac Contractility and Stroke Volume 341 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels 341 Microscopic Structure of Blood Vessels 341 Function of Blood Vessels 342 Regulation of Arterial Blood Pressure and Blood Volume 344 Neural Reflexes 345 Humoral Agents 345 Paracrine Agents 346 Cardiovascular Function During Exercise and Hypovolemia 346 Chapter 19 The Respiratory System 349 Upper Respiratory Tract 350 Nose 350 Paranasal Sinuses 352 Pharynx 354 Larynx 354 Trachea and Bronchi 357 Thorax 357 Lungs 358 Pleura 360 Physiology of Respiration 360 Ventilation 360 Gas Exchange 363 Gas Transport in Blood 365 Control of Ventilation 366 Chapter 20: Anatomy of the Digestive System 369 Organization of the Digestive System 370 Mouth 371 Teeth 372 Tongue 377 Pharynx 378 Tonsils 378 Esophagus 380 Simple Stomach 380 Ruminant Stomach 381 Ruminoreticulum 384 Omasum 385 Abomasum 385 Small Intestine 385 Large Intestine 387 Ruminants 387 Pig 387 Horse 388 Peritoneal Features 388 Accessory Digestive Organs 389 Salivary Glands 389 Pancreas 389 Liver 391 Chapter 21: Physiology of Digestion 395 Pregastric Physiology 397 Prehension and Chewing 397 Saliva and Salivary Glands 397 Swallowing 398 Ruminant Forestomach 398 Fermentative Digestion 398 Forestomach Motility 400 Reticular, or Esophageal, Groove 400 Omasum 401 Gastric Physiology 401 Gastric Glands and Secretions 401 Gastric Motility 402 Physiology of the Small Intestine, Exocrine Pancreas, and Liver 403 Small Intestine Secretions and Motility 403 Exocrine Pancreas 404 Liver Digestive Function and Secretion of Bile 406 Nutrient Absorption in the Small Intestine 407 Physiology of the Cecum and Colon 409 Cecum and Colon of the Horse 410 Rectum and Defecation 410 Neuroendocrine Control of Feeding 411 Chapter 22: Nutrition and Metabolism 413 Nutrition 414 Metabolism 414 Absorptive State: Anabolism 415 Postabsorptive State: Catabolism 417 Energy Needs During Exercise 418 Blood Glucose in Ruminants 419 Ketosis 419 Chapter 23: The Urinary System 421 Anatomy of the Kidney 422 Blood and Nerve Supply 424 Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra 424 Micturition 426 Overview of Function and Histology of the Kidneys 426 Glomerular Filtration 429 Proximal Tubule Transport 430 Concentration and Dilution of Urine: Role of the Loop of Henle and Collecting Duct Transport 431 Sodium Chloride and Water Reabsorption by the Loop of Henle 432 Collecting Duct Transport and Antidiuretic Hormone 433 Osmotic Regulation of Antidiuretic Hormone 434 Polyuria and Polydipsia 434 Sodium, Potassium, and Aldosterone 434 Urine Acidification 436 Regulation of Acid‐Base Balance 436 Extracellular and Intracellular Buffers 436 Classification of Alkalosis and Acidosis and Compensation 438 Chapter 24: Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System 441 Testis 442 Epididymis 444 Ductus Deferens 444 Scrotum 445 Inguinal Canal 447 Descent of the Testis 447 Castration 449 Accessory Sex Glands 449 Ampullae 450 Vesicular Glands 450 Prostate Gland 450 Bulbourethral Glands 451 Penis 451 Prepuce 453 Muscles of the Male Genitalia 453 Blood and Nerve Supply of the Male Genitalia 453 Chapter 25: Physiology of Male Reproduction 455 Seminiferous Tubules and Spermatogenesis 456 Seminiferous Tubules 456 Germ Cells and Spermatogenesis 457 Spermatozoa Morphology and Spermatogenesis 457 Rates and Timing of Spermatogenesis 460 Epididymis 460 Semen and Semen Technology 461 Hormones of Male Reproduction 462 Endocrine Regulation of Testicular Function 462 Testosterone and Its Effects 463 Erection and Ejaculation 463 Chapter 26: Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System 465 Ovaries 466 Uterine Tubes 468 Uterus 469 Vagina 471 Vestibule and Vulva 472 Blood and Nerve Supply of the Female Reproductive Tract 473 Chapter 27: The Ovary and Estrous Cycles 475 Oogenesis 476 Secondary Follicles 476 Hormones and Follicular Development 477 Ovulation 481 Luteinizing Hormone Surge 481 Spontaneous and Reflex Ovulators 481 Seasonal Transition 481 Corpus Luteum 482 Phases of the Estrous Cycle 483 Proestrus 484 Estrus 484 Metestrus 484 Diestrus and Anestrus 484 Puberty 484 Specifics of Selected Estrous Cycles 485 Mare 485 Cow 485 Ewe 486 Sow 487 Chapter 28:Pregnancy and Parturition 489 Fertilization 490 Spermatozoa Transport and Viability 490 Gamete Fusion and Early Embryonic Development 491 Implantation and Placentation 493 Hormones of Pregnancy 496 Progesterone 496 Equine Chorionic Gonadotrophin 497 Relaxin 497 Pregnancy Diagnosis 497 Parturition 498 Late Gestation 498 Initiation of Parturition 498 Oxytocin 499 Fetal Presentations and Delivery 499 Dystocia 500 Chapter 29: Anatomy and Physiology of the Mammary Glands 501 Mammary Glands of the Cow 502 Suspensory Apparatus 504 Blood Supply 504 Lymphatic Vessels 506 Microscopic Anatomy of the Mammary Gland 506 Mammary Glands of Sheep and Goats 508 Mammary Glands of Swine 508 Mammary Glands of the Horse 509 Physiology of Lactation 509 Composition of Milk 509 Milk Secretion 510 Lactogenesis 511 Galactogenesis 512 Milk Ejection or Letdown 513 Colostrum 514 Cessation of Lactation 515 Chapter 30: Poultry 517 Integument 518 Body Design 520 Skeleton and Bone 522 Musculature 524 Gastrointestinal System 524 Respiratory System 527 Ventilation and Gas Exchange 528 Cardiovascular System 530 Lymphatic System 531 Urinary System 531 Female Reproductive System 534 Egg Formation and Oviposition 535 Male Reproductive System 537 Sex Chromosomes 538 Reproduction and Photoperiods 538 Appendix: Abbreviations 539 Bibliography 545 Index 547