A Textbook of Neuroanatomy

Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii About the Companion Website xv Part I General Principles of the Nervous System 1 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Nervous System 3 Cells of the Central Nervous System 5 Central Nervous System 6 Peripheral Nervous System 9 Questions to Ponder 10 Chapter 2 Development of the Nervous System 11 Clinical Case 11 Early Development 12 Neurulation 14 Early Development of the Spinal Cord and Brain 19 Development of the Spinal Cord 21 Development of the Brain 23 Clinical Considerations 30 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Nervous System 31 Follow- up to Clinical Case 31 Questions to Ponder 31 Chapter 3 Histophysiology of the Nervous System 32 Clinical Case 32 Neurons 33 Neuroglia 40 Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulses 44 Clinical Considerations 47 Synonyms and Eponyms of Nervous System Histophysiology 48 Follow- up to Clinical Case 48 Questions to Ponder 48 Chapter 4 Neurotransmitter Substances 49 Clinical Case 49 Classification of Neurotransmitter Substances 52 Clinical Considerations 58 Follow- up to Clinical Case 59 Questions to Ponder 59 Chapter 5 Spinal Cord 60 Clinical Case 60 Morphology of the Spinal Cord 61 Internal Morphology of the Spinal Cord 67 Vascular Supply of the Spinal Cord 70 Clinical Considerations 73 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Spinal Cord 74 Follow- up to Clinical Case 74 Questions to Ponder 74 Chapter 6 Gross Anatomy of the Brain 75 Clinical Case 75 Cerebrum 76 Diencephalon 84 Cerebellum 85 Brainstem 87 Clinical Considerations 88 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Brain 90 Follow- up to Clinical Case 90 Questions to Ponder 90 Chapter 7 Brainstem 91 Clinical Case 91 Internal Organization of the Brainstem 91 Medulla Oblongata 96 Pons 102 Midbrain 107 Clinical Considerations 111 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Brainstem 116 Follow- up to Clinical Case 116 Questions to Ponder 116 Chapter 8 Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid 117 Clinical Case 117 Cranial Meninges 118 Spinal Meninges 126 Venous Sinuses of the Cranial Dura Mater 127 Cerebrospinal Fluid 130 Ventricles of the Brain 130 Clinical Considerations 131 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Cranial Meninges 132 Follow- up to Clinical Case 132 Questions to Ponder 132 Chapter 9 Vascular Supply of the Central Nervous System 133 Clinical Case 133 Vascular Supply of the Spinal Cord 134 Arterial Supply of the Brain 135 Venous Drainage of the Brain 149 Clinical Considerations 152 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Vascular Supply of the Central Nervous System 153 Follow- up to Clinical Case 153 Questions to Ponder 153 Chapter 10 Autonomic Nervous System 154 Clinical Case 154 Sympathetic Nervous System 157 Parasympathetic Nervous System 164 Enteric Nervous System 167 Neurotransmitters and Receptors of the Autonomic Nervous System 168 Pelvic Autonomic Functions 169 Clinical Considerations 171 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Autonomic Nervous System 172 Follow- up to Clinical Case 172 Questions to Ponder 172 Chapter 11 Spinal Reflexes 173 Clinical Case 173 Components of Reflexes 173 Lower Motor Neurons 174 Skeletal Muscle Innervation 175 Skeletal Muscle Receptors 176 Muscle Stretch Reflex 176 Reciprocal Inhibition 177 Autogenic Inhibition (Inverse Myotatic Reflex) 178 Flexor Reflex (Withdrawal Reflex, Nociceptive Reflex) 178 Crossed Extension Reflex 179 Maintenance of Muscle tone Via the Gamma Loop 180 Alpha–Gamma Coactivation 180 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Spinal Reflexes 182 Follow- up to Clinical Case 182 Questions to Ponder 182 Part II Integrative Components of the Nervous System 183 Chapter 12 Ascending Sensory Pathways 185 Clinical Case 185 Sensory Receptors 187 Anterolateral System 197 Tactile Sensation and Proprioception 207 Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum 214 Clinical Considerations 218 Modulation of Nociception 226 Neuroplasticity 229 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Ascending Sensory Pathways 229 Follow- up to Clinical Case 230 Questions to Ponder 230 Chapter 13 Motor Cortex and Descending Motor Pathways 231 Clinical Case 231 Cortical Areas Controlling Motor Activity 232 Descending Motor Pathways 235 Clinical Considerations 249 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Motor Cortex and Descending Motor Pathways 253 Follow-up to Clinical Case 254 Questions to Ponder 254 Chapter 14 Basal Nuclei 255 Clinical Case 255 Components of the Basal Nuclei 256 Nuclei Associated with the Basal Nuclei 260 Input, Intrinsic, and Output Nuclei of the Basal Nuclei 261 Connections of the Basal Nuclei 263 Circuits Connecting the Basal Nuclei, Thalamus, and Cerebral Cortex 270 Other Circuits of the Basal Nuclei 273 Neurotransmitters of the Basal Nuclei 274 “Direct,” “Indirect,” and “Hyperdirect” Loops (Pathways) of the Basal Nuclei 275 Circuits that Modulate Activity of the Basal Nuclei 277 Clinical Considerations 278 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Basal Nuclei 283 Follow- up to Clinical Case 284 Questions to Ponder 284 Chapter 15 Cerebellum 285 Clinical Case 285 Morphology of the Cerebellum 287 Cerebellar Peduncles 296 Deep Cerebellar Nuclei 298 Afferents (Input) to the Cerebellum 301 Efferents (Output) from the Cerebellum 304 Functional Organization of the Cerebellum: Intrinsic Circuitry 305 Clinical Considerations 307 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Cerebellum 309 Follow- up to Clinical Case 309 Questions to Ponder 309 Chapter 16 Reticular Formation 310 Clinical Case 310 Morphology of the Reticular Formation 311 Zones of the Reticular Formation 312 Nuclei Associated with the Reticular Formation 314 Input to and Output from the Reticular Formation 314 Functions of the Reticular Formation 315 Clinical Considerations 321 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Reticular Formation 322 Follow- up to Clinical Case 322 Questions to Ponder 322 Chapter 17 Cranial Nerves 323 Clinical Case 323 Olfactory Nerve (CN I) 329 Optic Nerve (CN II) 329 Oculomotor Nerve (CN III) 329 Trochlear Nerve (CN IV) 331 Clinical Considerations 331 Trigeminal Nerve (CN V) 334 Clinical Considerations 340 Abducens Nerve (CN VI) 341 Clinical Considerations 342 Facial Nerve (CN VII) 346 Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII) 348 Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN IX) 349 Clinical Considerations 349 Clinical Considerations 353 Vagus Nerve (CN X) 353 Clinical Considerations 354 Accessory Nerve (CN XI) 354 Clinical Considerations 357 Hypoglossal Nerve (CN XII) 357 Clinical Considerations 358 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Cranial Nerves 359 Follow- up to Clinical Case 360 Questions to Ponder 360 Chapter 18 Visual System 361 Clinical Case 361 Eyeball 361 Central Visual Pathways 367 Visual Reflexes 377 Clinical Considerations 384 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Visual System 387 Follow- up to Clinical Case 387 Questions to Ponder 387 Chapter 19 Auditory System 388 Clinical Case 388 Ear 389 Auditory Transmission 393 Central Auditory Pathways 394 Clinical Considerations 403 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Auditory System 404 Follow- up to Clinical Case 404 Questions to Ponder 404 Chapter 20 Vestibular System 405 Clinical Case 405 Vestibular Apparatus 406 Vestibular Nerve (CN VIII) 411 Central Pathways of the Vestibular System 413 Control of Ocular Movements 417 Vestibular Nystagmus 421 Caloric Nystagmus 421 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Vestibular System 423 Follow- up to Clinical Case 423 Questions to Ponder 423 Chapter 21 Olfactory System 424 Clinical Case 424 Olfactory Receptor Neurons 425 Olfactory Transduction 427 Olfactory Nerve (CN I) 428 Central Connections of the Olfactory System 429 Blood Supply and Drainage 431 Clinical Considerations 432 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Olfactory System 433 Follow- up to Clinical Case 433 Questions to Ponder 433 Chapter 22 Limbic System 434 Clinical Case 434 Limbic Lobe 435 Brainstem Centers Associated with Limbic System Function 446 Pathways of the Limbic System 446 Limbic Association Cortex 449 Limbic System Input to the Endocrine, Autonomic, and Somatic Motor Systems 449 Clinical Considerations 450 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Limbic System 451 Follow- up to Clinical Case 451 Questions to Ponder 452 Chapter 23 Hypothalamus 453 Clinical Case 453 Borders 454 Hypothalamic Zones and Component Nuclei 455 Hypothalamic Regions (Areas) and Component Nuclei 457 Connections of the Hypothalamus 462 Pathways of the Hypothalamus 463 Functions of the Hypothalamus 466 Hypothalamohypophyseal Connections 469 Clinical Considerations 475 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Hypothalamus 477 Follow- up to Clinical Case 478 Questions to Ponder 478 Chapter 24 Thalamus 480 Clinical Case 480 Borders 480 Anatomy 482 Internal and External Medullary Laminae 483 Thalamic Nuclei 484 Clinical Considerations 491 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Thalamus 492 Follow-up to Clinical Case 492 Questions to Ponder 493 Chapter 25 Cerebral Cortex 494 Clinical Case 494 Cells of the Cerebral Cortex 496 Types of Cortex 498 Cell Layers of the Neocortex 499 Vertical Columnar Organization of the Cerebral Cortex 500 Afferents (Input) to the Cerebral Cortex 500 Efferents (Output) from the Cerebral Cortex 501 Internal Capsule and Corona Radiata 504 Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex 504 Functional Organization of the Cerebral Cortex 505 Cerebral Dominance 512 Clinical Considerations 515 Synonyms and Eponyms of the Cerebral Cortex 519 Follow-up to Clinical Case 520 Questions to Ponder 521 Chapter 26 Evolution of the Human Brain 522 Evolutionary Biology Fundamentals 522 Early Hominins 522 Non- Human Primates 522 Modern Human Brains 523 Prenatal and Postnatal Development 523 Questions to ponder: answers to odd questions 524 Questions to ponder: answers to even questions 533 Answers to clinical case margin questions 541 Index 545