Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems

Preface xxiii About the Companion Website xxvii 1 Introduction: The Wireless Communication Channel 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Concept of a Wireless Channel 1 1.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 5 1.4 Spectrum Management and Regulation 6 1.5 History 7 1.6 System Types 7 1.7 Aims of Cellular Systems 12 1.8 An Overview of Wireless Technologies 13 1.9 Multiple Access Schemes and Duplexing 32 1.10 The Mobile Broadband Revolution 35 1.11 Structure of This Book 37 1.12 Conclusion 38 2 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 41 2.1 Introduction 41 2.2 Maxwell's Equations 41 2.3 Summary of Maxwell's Equations 44 2.4 The Wave Equation 44 2.5 Plane Wave Properties 45 2.6 Polarisation 50 2.7 Conclusion 52 3 Propagation Mechanisms 55 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Reflection, Refraction and Transmission 55 3.3 Rough Surface Scattering 63 3.4 Geometrical Optics 66 3.5 Diffraction 68 3.6 Conclusion 76 4 Antenna Fundamentals 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Principles 79 4.3 Antenna Parameters 83 4.4 Practical Dipoles 91 4.5 Antenna Arrays 95 4.6 Horn Antennas 99 4.7 Loop Antennas 100 4.8 Helical Antennas 101 4.9 Patch Antennas 101 4.10 Lens Antennas 102 4.11 Conclusion 104 5 Basic Propagation Models 109 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Definition of Path Loss 109 5.3 A Brief Note on Decibels 112 5.4 Noise Modelling 112 5.5 Free Space Loss 116 5.6 Plane Earth Loss 118 5.7 Link Budgets 120 5.8 Conclusion 122 6 Terrestrial Fixed Links 125 6.1 Introduction 125 6.2 Path Profiles 125 6.3 Tropospheric Refraction 128 6.4 Obstruction Loss 133 6.5 Approximate Multiple Knife-Edge Diffraction 135 6.6 The Multiple-Edge Diffraction Integral 140 6.7 Diffraction Over Objects of Finite Size 147 6.8 Other Methods for Predicting Terrain Diffraction 148 6.9 Propagation in Vegetation 153 6.10 Propagation in Tropical Environments 159 6.11 Antennas for Fixed Terrestrial Links 164 6.12 Conclusion 165 7 Satellite Fixed Links and High Altitude Platforms 171 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Tropospheric Effects 172 7.3 Ionospheric Effects 187 7.4 Satellite Earth Stations 191 7.5 High-altitude Platforms (HAPS) 195 7.6 Conclusion 201 8 Wide Area Coverage: Macrocells and Broadcasting 205 8.1 Introduction 205 8.2 Definition of Parameters 206 8.3 Empirical Path Loss Models 206 8.4 Physical Models 217 8.5 ITU-R Models 226 8.6 Hybrid Models -- Measurement-based Prediction (MbP) 228 8.7 Comparison of Models 230 8.8 Computerised Planning Tools 231 8.9 Cellular Base Station Site Engineering 231 8.10 Broadcasting Systems 242 8.11 Conclusion 246 9 Shadowing 251 9.1 Introduction 251 9.2 Statistical Characterisation 251 9.3 Physical Basis for Shadowing 252 9.4 Impact on Coverage 253 9.5 Location Variability 258 9.6 Correlated Shadowing 260 9.7 Conclusion 268 10 Narrowband Fast Fading 273 10.1 Introduction 273 10.2 Baseband Channel Representation 273 10.3 The AWGN Channel 274 10.4 The Narrowband Fading Channel 277 10.5 When Does Fading Occur in Practice? 278 10.6 The Rayleigh Distribution 279 10.7 Distribution of the SNR for a Rayleigh Channel 282 10.8 The Rice Distribution 285 10.9 The Nakagami-m Distribution 289 10.10 Other Fast-Fading Distributions 290 10.11 Second-Order Fast-Fading Statistics 292 10.12 Autocorrelation Function 299 10.13 Narrowband Mobile Radio Channel Simulations 302 10.14 Conclusion 302 11 Wideband Fast Fading 305 11.1 Introduction 305 11.2 Effect of Wideband Fading 306 11.3 Wideband Channel Model 309 11.4 Wideband Channel Parameters 310 11.5 Frequency Domain Effects 315 11.6 The Bello Functions 316 11.7 Wideband Fading in Fixed Links 317 11.8 Overcoming Wideband Channel Impairments 318 11.9 Conclusion 318 12 Microcells 321 12.1 Introduction 321 12.2 Empirical Models 322 12.3 Physical Models 332 12.4 Line-of-Sight Models 333 12.5 Non-Line-of-Sight Models 340 12.6 Discussion 346 12.7 Microcell Shadowing 346 12.8 Narrowband Fading 348 12.9 Wideband Effects 348 12.10 Conclusion 349 13 Picocells 353 13.1 Introduction 353 13.2 Empirical Models of Propagation Within Buildings 353 13.3 Physical Models of Indoor Propagation Within Buildings 365 13.4 Models of Propagation Into Buildings 372 13.5 Indoor-to-Outdoor (I2O) Propagation (Leakage) Models 381 13.6 Constitutive Parameters of Building Materials for Physical Models 383 13.7 Shadowing 384 13.8 Multipath Effects 384 13.9 Ultra-Wideband Indoor Propagation 387 13.10 Distribution Systems for Indoor and Enclosed Space Applications 388 13.11 Indoor Link Budgets 400 13.12 Conclusion 405 14 Propagation for Short-Range and Enclosed Space Applications 411 14.1 Introduction 411 14.2 Propagation in Tunnels 411 14.3 Wireless Communications for Trains 417 14.4 Propagation in Underground Mines 426 14.5 Propagation in Corridors 428 14.6 Propagation Within Lift Shafts 431 14.7 Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) Communications 433 14.8 Conclusion 435 15 Megacells -- Non-terrestrial Networks 439 15.1 Introduction 439 15.2 Non-Terrestrial Mobile Networks 441 15.3 Shadowing and Fast Fading 443 15.4 Empirical Narrowband Models 445 15.5 Statistical Models 448 15.6 Shadowing Statistics 455 15.7 Physical-Statistical Models for Built-Up Areas 455 15.8 Wideband Models 463 15.9 Multi-Satellite Correlations 464 15.10 Overall Mobile Satellite Channel Model 465 15.11 Conclusion 466 16 Antenna Applications 471 16.1 Introduction 471 16.2 Mobile Terminal Antennas 471 16.3 Base Station Antennas 487 16.4 Antennas for Other Wireless Systems 499 16.5 Conclusion 507 17 Channel Measurements for Mobile Systems 513 17.1 Introduction 513 17.2 Applications for Channel Measurements 513 17.3 Impact of Measurement Inaccuracies 516 17.4 Signal Sampling Issues 517 17.5 Measurement Systems 523 17.6 Equipment Calibration and Validation 525 17.7 Outdoor Measurements 528 17.8 Indoor Measurements 533 17.9 Practical Experiment: Wi-Fi Measurements 538 17.10 Conclusion 540 18 Overcoming Narrowband Fading via Diversity 543 18.1 Introduction 543 18.2 Criteria for Useful Branches 545 18.3 Space Diversity 545 18.4 Polarisation Diversity 551 18.5 Time Diversity 554 18.6 Frequency Diversity 554 18.7 Combining Methods 555 18.8 Diversity for Microwave Links 562 18.9 Macrodiversity 562 18.10 Transmit Diversity 562 18.11 Conclusion 563 19 Overcoming Wideband Fading 565 19.1 Introduction 565 19.2 System Modelling 566 19.3 Linear Equalisers 568 19.4 Adaptive Equalisers 571 19.5 Non-Linear Equalisers 574 19.6 Rake Receivers 579 19.7 OFDM Receivers 582 19.8 Delay-Doppler Modulation: OTFS 586 19.9 Conclusion 588 20 Adaptive Antennas 591 20.1 Introduction 591 20.2 Basic Concepts 592 20.3 Adaptive Antenna Applications 593 20.4 Optimum Combining 598 20.5 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Systems 605 20.6 Massive MIMO 614 20.7 MIMO Channel Modelling and Antennas 617 20.8 Summary of Adaptive Antenna Techniques 626 20.9 Conclusion 627 21 5G Mobile Networks 631 21.1 Introduction 631 21.2 5G Drivers and Standards Development 632 21.3 5G Frequency Bands 635 21.4 5G Air Interface Overview 638 21.5 MIMO in 5G 642 21.6 5G Mobile Propagation 648 21.7 5G Performance 657 21.8 5G Cell Planning 659 21.9 Conclusion 660 22 Future Antennas and Propagation: 6G and Beyond 663 22.1 Introduction 663 22.2 Beyond Shannon? 663 22.3 Expected Attributes and Candidate Technologies for 6G 664 22.4 Sensing 666 22.5 (Sub) Terahertz Mobile Propagation 667 22.6 Cell-Free Networks and Distributed MIMO 671 22.7 Full Duplex 672 22.8 Metamaterials and Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces 673 22.9 Machine Learning (ML) in Mobile Networks 674 22.10 Conclusion 680 References 681 Problems 682 Appendix A Statistics, Probability and Stochastic Processes 683 A.1 Introduction 683 A.2 Single Random Variables 683 A.3 Multiple Random Variables 684 A.4 Gaussian Distribution and Central Limit Theorem 684 A.5 Random Processes 685 Appendix B Tables and Data 687 B.1 Normal (Gaussian) Distribution 687 B.2 Error Function 687 B.3 Fresnel Integrals 690 B.4 Gamma Function 691 B.5 Bessel Function 692 Reference 693 Abbreviations 695 Index 701