Advances in Energy Storage

List of Contributors xxi 1 Energy Storage Solutions for Future Energy Systems 1 Andreas Hauer 1.1 The Role of Energy Storage 1 1.2 The Definition of Energy Storage 1 1.3 Technologies for Energy Storage 5 1.4 Applications for Energy Storage 11 Part I Electrochemical, Electrical, and Super Magnetic Energy Storages 15 2 An Introduction to Electrochemistry in Modern Power Sources 17 Frank C. Walsh, Andrew Cruden, and Peter J. Hall 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Electrode Reactions 17 2.3 Electrochemical Cells 18 2.4 The Case for Electrochemical Power Sources 19 2.5 The Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Cells 20 2.6 The Actual Cell Voltage: Thermodynamic, Electrode Kinetic, and Ohmic Losses 20 2.7 Faraday’s Laws and Charge Capacity 22 2.8 The Performance of Cells: Charge Capacity and Specific Energy Capability 23 2.9 Types of Electrochemical Device for Energy Conversion 23 3 Standalone Batteries for Power Backup and Energy Storage 31 Declan Bryans, Martin R Jiminez, Jennifer M Maxwell, Jon M Mitxelena, David Kerr, and Léonard E A Berlouis 3.1 Introduction 31 3.2 Standalone Battery Technologies 31 3.3 Comparisons 54 3.4 Conclusions 54 4 Environmental Aspects and Recycling of Battery Materials 61 Guangjin Zhao 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Classical Batteries 63 4.3 Summary 64 4.4 Future Perspectives 64 4.5 Future Developments 68 5 Supercapacitors for Short-term, High Power Energy Storage 71 Lingbin Kong, Maocheng Liu, Jianyun Cao, Rutao Wang, Weibin Zhang, Kun Yan, Xiaohong Li, and Frank C. Walsh 5.1 Introduction 71 5.2 Electrode Materials 73 5.3 Supercapacitor Devices 80 5.4 Conclusions 88 5.5 Outlook 89 6 Overview of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Technology 99 Jing Shi, Xiao Zhou, Yang Liu, Li Ren, Yuejin Tang, and Shijie Chen 6.1 Introduction 99 6.2 The Principle of SMES 99 6.3 Development Status of SMES 102 6.4 Development Trend of SMES 104 6.5 Research Topics for Developing SMES 107 6.6 Conclusions 109 7 Key Technologies of Superconducting Magnets for SMES 113 Ying Xu, Li Ren, Jing Shi, and Yuejin Tang 7.1 Introduction 113 7.2 The Development of SMES Magnets 116 7.3 Considerations in the Design of SMES Magnets 119 7.4 Current Leads of SMES Magnets 124 7.5 Quench Protection for SMES Magnets 128 7.6 Summary 132 8 Testing Technologies for Developing SMES 135 Jing Shi, Yuxiang Liao, Lihui Zhang, Ying Xu, Li Ren, Jingdong Li, and Yuejin Tang 8.1 Introduction 135 8.2 HTS Tape Property Test Method 135 8.3 Magnet Coils Experimental Methods 138 8.4 SMES Test 140 8.5 Conclusions 147 9 Superconducting Wires and Tapes for SMES 149 Yuejin Tang, Ying Xu, Sinian Yan, Feng Feng, and Guo Yan 9.1 Introduction 149 9.2 A Brief Explanation of Superconductivity 150 9.3 Wires Made from LTc Superconductors 157 9.4 Wires or Tapes Made from HTc Superconductors 158 9.5 Discussion 162 10 Cryogenic Technology 165 Li Ren, Ying Xu, and Yuejin Tang 10.1 Introduction 165 10.2 Cryogens 166 10.3 Cryo-cooler 170 10.4 Cryogenic System 173 10.5 Vacuum Technology 176 10.6 An Evaluation Method for Conduction-cooled SMES Cryogenic Cooling Systems 178 10.7 Case Study 181 11 Control Strategies for Different Application Modes of SMES 187 Jiakun Fang, Wei Yao, Jinyu Wen, and Shijie Cheng 11.1 Overview of the Control Strategies for SMES Applications 187 11.2 Robust Control for SMES in Coordination with Wind Generators 188 11.3 Anti-windup Compensation for SMES-Based Power System Damping Controller 196 11.4 Monitoring and Control Unit of SMES 204 11.5 Conclusion 208 Part II Mechanical Energy Storage and Pumped Hydro Energy Storage 211 12 Overview of Pumped Hydro Resource 213 Pål-Tore Storli 12.1 Pumped Hydro Storage Basic Concepts 213 12.2 Historic Perspective 226 12.3 Worldwide Installed Base 231 12.4 The Future for PHS 231 13 Pumped Storage Machines – Motor Generators 239 Stefanie Kemmer and Thomas Hildinger 13.1 Synchronous Machine Fixed Speed 240 13.2 Doubly fed Induction Machine Adjustable Speed (DFIM) 247 13.3 Synchronous Machine Adjustable Speed (FFIM) 252 14 Pumped Storage Machines – Ternary Units 257 Manfred Sallaberger and Thomas Gaal 14.1 Ternary Units 257 15 Hydro-Mechanical Equipment 273 Claudia Pollak-Reibenwein 15.1 Steel-lined Pressure Conduits 273 15.2 Typical Control and Shut-Off Devices for Pumped Storage Plants 284 16 Pumped Storage Machines - Hydraulic Short-circuit Operation 289 Thomas Gaal and Manfred Sallaberger 16.1 Hydraulic Short-circuit Operation 289 Part III Mechanical Energy Storage, Compressed Air Energy Storage, and Flywheels 303 17 Compressed Air Energy Storage: Are the Market and Technical Knowledge Ready? 305 Pierre Bérest, Benoît Brouard, Louis Londe, and Arnaud Réveillère 17.1 Introduction 305 17.2 Historical Developments 307 17.3 Challenges Raised by Air Storage in Salt Caverns 308 17.4 (Selected) Recent Projects 314 17.5 Business Case 316 17.6 Conclusion 320 18 The Geology, Historical Background, and Developments in CAES 323 David J. Evans 18.1 Introduction 323 18.2 Operational Modes – Diabatic, Adiabatic, Isothermal (Heat), Isochoric, and Isobaric (Pressure) Operations 333 18.3 Brief Review of the Historical Origins of CAES – How It All Began and Where It Is Now 334 18.4 Overview of Underground (Geological) Storage Options 341 18.5 Summary 376 19 Compressed Air Energy Storage in Aquifer and Depleted Gas Storage Reservoirs 391 Michael J. King and George Moridis 19.1 Introduction 391 19.2 History of CAES Development 391 19.3 Power Train Requirements 393 19.4 How Does a CAES Energy Storage System Work? Matching the Storage System to CAES Power Train Requirements 394 19.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of CAES in Aquifer Structures and Depleted Gas Reservoirs 401 19.6 CAES Storage System Design Tools, Development, and Operation 403 19.7 Summary 405 20 Open Accumulator Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage (OA-ICAES) System 409 Perry Y. Li, Eric Loth, Chao (Chris) Qin, Terrence W. Simon, and James D. Van de Ven 20.1 Introduction 409 20.2 Open Accumulator Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage (OA-ICAES) System Architecture 412 20.3 Liquid Piston Isothermal Compressor/Expander 413 20.4 Using Water Droplet Spray to Enhance Heat Transfer 425 20.5 Systems and Control 429 20.6 Discussion 432 20.7 Conclusions 434 Part IV Chemical Energy Storage 439 21 Hydrogen (or Syngas) Generation – Solar Thermal 441 Jonathan Scheffe, Dylan McCord, and Diego Gordon 21.2 Solar Thermochemical Processes 447 22 Power-to-Liquids – Conversion of CO2 and Renewable H2 to Methanol 489 Robin J. White 22.1 Introduction 489 22.2 Methanol Synthesis 494 22.3 Catalysts for Methanol Synthesis 496 22.4 Transitioning to Sustainable Methanol Production 500 22.5 Elaboration of a Methanol Economy 505 22.6 Conclusion and Summary 512 23 Hydrogenation Energy Recovery – Small Molecule Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers and Catalytic Dehydrogenation 521 Jong-Hoo Choi, Dominic van der Waals, Thomas Zell, Robert Langer, and Martin H.G. Prechtl 23.1 Introduction 521 23.2 Methanol (CH3OH) 525 23.3 Formaldehyde/Methanediol (CH2O/CH2OHOH) 535 23.4 Formic Acid (HCO2H) 537 23.5 Other Alcohols, Diols, and Amino Alcohols 544 23.6 Summary and Outlook 550 24 Hydrogen Energy Recovery – H2-Based Fuel Cells 559 Nada Zamel and Ulf Groos 24.1 Introduction 559 24.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells 561 24.3 Topics of Research 569 24.4 Characterization Techniques 577 24.5 Conclusions 582 Part V Thermal Energy Storage 589 25 Thermal Energy Storage – An Introduction 591 Andreas Hauer and Eberhard Laevemann 25.1 Introduction 591 25.2 Characteristic Parameters of Thermal Energy Storage 592 25.3 The Physical Storage Principle – Sensible, Latent, and Thermochemical 596 25.4 Design of a Thermal Energy Storage and Integration into an Energy System 600 25.5 Thermal Energy Storage Classification 602 25.6 Conclusions 604 26 New Phase Change Materials for Latent Heat Storage 607 Elena Palomo del Barrio and Fouzia Achchaq 26.1 Introduction 607 26.2 Fundamentals, Materials, Groups, and Properties 608 26.3 Currently Used and Emerging Phase Change Materials 614 26.4 Approaches to Improve PCMs’ Properties 621 26.5 Commercial Status 627 26.6 Future Development Directions 627 27 Sorption Material Developments for TES Applications 631 Alenka Ristić 27.1 Introduction 631 27.2 Sorption Materials 635 27.3 Future Developments 647 28 Vacuum Super Insulated Thermal Storage Systems for Buildings and Industrial Applications 655 Thomas Beikircher and Matthias Rottmann 28.1 Introduction 655 28.2 VSI with Expanded Perlite for Highly Efficient and Economical Thermal Storages 658 28.3 Storage Media for Medium and High Temperatures 669 28.4 VSI and VSI Storages in Industrial Applications 671 28.5 Conclusions 672 29 Heat Transfer Enhancement for Latent Heat Storage Components 675 Jaume Gasia, Laia Miró, Alvaro de Gracia, and Luisa F. Cabeza 29.1 Introduction 675 29.2 Heat Transfer Enhancement Techniques 676 29.3 Technology Development and Commercial Status 690 30 Reactor Design for Thermochemical Energy Storage Systems 695 Wim Van Helden 30.1 Requirements for TCM Reactors 695 30.2 Charging and Discharging Processes in TCM Reactors 695 30.3 Types of Reactors and Examples of Design Solutions 699 30.4 Conclusions and Outlook 702 31 Phase Change Materials in Buildings – State of the Art 705 Thomas Haussmann, Tabea Obergfell, and Stefan Gschwander 31.1 Introduction 705 31.2 Materials 707 31.3 Example of Building Integration of PCM 710 31.4 Planning Boundary Conditions 722 31.5 Long Term Experience 725 32 Industrial Applications of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 729 Viktoria Martin and Ningwei Justin Chiu 32.1 Why Thermal Energy Storage in Industry? 729 32.2 Integration of TES in Industrial Scale Applications 734 32.3 Mobile TES in Innovative Energy Distribution 742 32.4 Concluding Remarks 744 33 Economy of Thermal Energy Storage Systems in Different Applications 749 Christoph Rathgeber, Eberhard Lävemann, and Andreas Hauer 33.1 Introduction 749 33.2 Methods to Evaluate Thermal Energy Storage Economics 749 33.3 Comparison of Acceptable and Realized Storage Capacity Costs in Different TES Applications 752 33.4 Discussion on the Major Influencing Factors on the Economics of Thermal Energy Storage 757 33.5 Conclusions 758 Part VI Energy Storage Concepts, Regulations, and Markets 761 34 Energy Storage Can Stop Global Warming 763 Halime Ö. Paksoy 34.1 Introduction 763 34.2 Energy Storage Technologies 765 34.3 Energy Storage Systems 766 34.4 The Potentials of Energy Storage 767 34.5 Policy Frameworks 771 34.6 Cross-cutting Aspects 772 34.7 Conclusions 773 35 Energy Storage Participation in Electricity Markets 775 Tom Brijs, Andreas Belderbos, Kris Kessels, Daan Six, Ronnie Belmans, and Frederik Geth 35.1 Introduction 775 35.2 Classification of Energy Storage Options 777 35.3 Techno-economic Energy Storage Characteristics 782 35.4 Energy Storage Applications 784 35.5 Interaction Market Opportunities and Technical Characteristics –Illustrative Case Studies 788 35.6 Conclusions 792 36 Public Perceptions and Acceptance of Energy Storage Technologies 795 Per Alex Soerensen 36.1 Introduction 795 36.2 Why Resistance? 795 36.3 Who Will Resist? 796 36.4 Cases 796 36.5 Drivers for Positive Public Perceptions and Acceptance 798 36.6 Is There a Manual for Citizen Involvement? 800 36.7 Perception of Acceptance of Energy Storage Technologies 801 37 Business Case for Energy Storage in Japan 805 Masaya Okumaya 37.1 Energy Consumption in Japan 805 37.2 Electricity Situation 806 37.3 Climate Condition and Cooling/heating Load 807 37.4 Situation of Thermal Energy Storage (TES) Spread 808 37.5 Variation of TES 809 37.6 Water Storage 810 37.7 Ice Storage 811 38 Energy Storage in the Electricity Market: Business Models and Regulatory Framework in Germany 817 Helena Teschner 38.1 Introduction 818 38.2 Business Models in Germany 819 38.3 Legal and Regulatory Framework – Opportunities and Barriers 829 38.4 Conclusion and Outlook 835 39 Integration of Renewable Energy by Distributed Energy Storages 839 Christian Doetsch and Anna Grevé 39.1 Introduction 839 39.2 Usage of Variable Renewable Energies and Induced Problems 839 39.3 Energy Balancing Technologies and Options 843 39.4 Applications for Electric Energy Storages (Adapted from [4]) 845 39.5 Business Cases for Electric Energy Storages 847 39.6 Distributed Storage Concepts 848 39.7 Summary 849 40 Thermal Storages and Power to Heat 851 Per Alex Soerensen 40.1 Introduction 851 40.2 Why Power to Heat? 851 40.3 Technologies for Power to Heat 853 40.4 Examples of Power to Heat Concepts 865 40.5 The Future. Smart Energy Systems 868 Index 871